libphobos/libdruntime/core/atomic.d

/**
 * The atomic module provides basic support for lock-free
 * concurrent programming.
 *
 * Copyright: Copyright Sean Kelly 2005 - 2016.
 * License:   $(LINK2 http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt, Boost License 1.0)
 * Authors:   Sean Kelly, Alex Rønne Petersen
 * Source:    $(DRUNTIMESRC core/_atomic.d)
 */


/* NOTE: This file has been patched from the original DMD distribution to
 * work with the GDC compiler.
 */
module core.atomic;

version (D_InlineAsm_X86)
{
    version = AsmX86;
    version = AsmX86_32;
    enum has64BitCAS = true;
    enum has128BitCAS = false;
}
else version (D_InlineAsm_X86_64)
{
    version = AsmX86;
    version = AsmX86_64;
    enum has64BitCAS = true;
    enum has128BitCAS = true;
}
else version (GNU)
{
    import gcc.config;
    enum has64BitCAS = GNU_Have_64Bit_Atomics;
    enum has128BitCAS = GNU_Have_LibAtomic;
}
else
{
    enum has64BitCAS = false;
    enum has128BitCAS = false;
}

private
{
    template HeadUnshared(T)
    {
        static if ( is( T U : shared(U*) ) )
            alias shared(U)* HeadUnshared;
        else
            alias T HeadUnshared;
    }
}


version (AsmX86)
{
    // NOTE: Strictly speaking, the x86 supports atomic operations on
    //       unaligned values.  However, this is far slower than the
    //       common case, so such behavior should be prohibited.
    private bool atomicValueIsProperlyAligned(T)( ref T val ) pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
    {
        return atomicPtrIsProperlyAligned(&val);
    }

    private bool atomicPtrIsProperlyAligned(T)( T* ptr ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
    {
        // NOTE: 32 bit x86 systems support 8 byte CAS, which only requires
        //       4 byte alignment, so use size_t as the align type here.
        static if ( T.sizeof > size_t.sizeof )
            return cast(size_t)ptr % size_t.sizeof == 0;
        else
            return cast(size_t)ptr % T.sizeof == 0;
    }
}


version (CoreDdoc)
{
    /**
     * Performs the binary operation 'op' on val using 'mod' as the modifier.
     *
     * Params:
     *  val = The target variable.
     *  mod = The modifier to apply.
     *
     * Returns:
     *  The result of the operation.
     */
    HeadUnshared!(T) atomicOp(string op, T, V1)( ref shared T val, V1 mod ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( __traits( compiles, mixin( "*cast(T*)&val" ~ op ~ "mod" ) ) )
    {
        return HeadUnshared!(T).init;
    }


    /**
     * Stores 'writeThis' to the memory referenced by 'here' if the value
     * referenced by 'here' is equal to 'ifThis'.  This operation is both
     * lock-free and atomic.
     *
     * Params:
     *  here      = The address of the destination variable.
     *  writeThis = The value to store.
     *  ifThis    = The comparison value.
     *
     * Returns:
     *  true if the store occurred, false if not.
     */
    bool cas(T,V1,V2)( shared(T)* here, const V1 ifThis, V2 writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( !is(T == class) && !is(T U : U*) && __traits( compiles, { *here = writeThis; } ) );

    /// Ditto
    bool cas(T,V1,V2)( shared(T)* here, const shared(V1) ifThis, shared(V2) writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( is(T == class) && __traits( compiles, { *here = writeThis; } ) );

    /// Ditto
    bool cas(T,V1,V2)( shared(T)* here, const shared(V1)* ifThis, shared(V2)* writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( is(T U : U*) && __traits( compiles, { *here = writeThis; } ) );

    /**
     * Loads 'val' from memory and returns it.  The memory barrier specified
     * by 'ms' is applied to the operation, which is fully sequenced by
     * default.  Valid memory orders are MemoryOrder.raw, MemoryOrder.acq,
     * and MemoryOrder.seq.
     *
     * Params:
     *  val = The target variable.
     *
     * Returns:
     *  The value of 'val'.
     */
    HeadUnshared!(T) atomicLoad(MemoryOrder ms = MemoryOrder.seq,T)( ref const shared T val ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
    {
        return HeadUnshared!(T).init;
    }


    /**
     * Writes 'newval' into 'val'.  The memory barrier specified by 'ms' is
     * applied to the operation, which is fully sequenced by default.
     * Valid memory orders are MemoryOrder.raw, MemoryOrder.rel, and
     * MemoryOrder.seq.
     *
     * Params:
     *  val    = The target variable.
     *  newval = The value to store.
     */
    void atomicStore(MemoryOrder ms = MemoryOrder.seq,T,V1)( ref shared T val, V1 newval ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( __traits( compiles, { val = newval; } ) )
    {

    }


    /**
     * Specifies the memory ordering semantics of an atomic operation.
     */
    enum MemoryOrder
    {
        raw,    /// Not sequenced.
        acq,    /// Hoist-load + hoist-store barrier.
        rel,    /// Sink-load + sink-store barrier.
        seq,    /// Fully sequenced (acquire + release).
    }

    deprecated("Please use MemoryOrder instead.")
    alias MemoryOrder msync;

    /**
     * Inserts a full load/store memory fence (on platforms that need it). This ensures
     * that all loads and stores before a call to this function are executed before any
     * loads and stores after the call.
     */
    void atomicFence() nothrow @nogc;
}
else version (AsmX86_32)
{
    // Uses specialized asm for fast fetch and add operations
    private HeadUnshared!(T) atomicFetchAdd(T)( ref shared T val, size_t mod ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( T.sizeof <= 4 )
    {
        size_t tmp = mod;
        asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
        {
            mov EAX, tmp;
            mov EDX, val;
        }
        static if (T.sizeof == 1) asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted { lock; xadd[EDX], AL; }
        else static if (T.sizeof == 2) asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted { lock; xadd[EDX], AX; }
        else static if (T.sizeof == 4) asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted { lock; xadd[EDX], EAX; }

        asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
        {
            mov tmp, EAX;
        }

        return cast(T)tmp;
    }

    private HeadUnshared!(T) atomicFetchSub(T)( ref shared T val, size_t mod ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( T.sizeof <= 4)
    {
        return atomicFetchAdd(val, -mod);
    }

    HeadUnshared!(T) atomicOp(string op, T, V1)( ref shared T val, V1 mod ) pure nothrow @nogc
        if ( __traits( compiles, mixin( "*cast(T*)&val" ~ op ~ "mod" ) ) )
    in
    {
        assert(atomicValueIsProperlyAligned(val));
    }
    body
    {
        // binary operators
        //
        // +    -   *   /   %   ^^  &
        // |    ^   <<  >>  >>> ~   in
        // ==   !=  <   <=  >   >=
        static if ( op == "+"  || op == "-"  || op == "*"  || op == "/"   ||
                   op == "%"  || op == "^^" || op == "&"  || op == "|"   ||
                   op == "^"  || op == "<<" || op == ">>" || op == ">>>" ||
                   op == "~"  || // skip "in"
                   op == "==" || op == "!=" || op == "<"  || op == "<="  ||
                   op == ">"  || op == ">=" )
        {
            HeadUnshared!(T) get = atomicLoad!(MemoryOrder.raw)( val );
            mixin( "return get " ~ op ~ " mod;" );
        }
        else
        // assignment operators
        //
        // +=   -=  *=  /=  %=  ^^= &=
        // |=   ^=  <<= >>= >>>=    ~=
        static if ( op == "+=" && __traits(isIntegral, T) && T.sizeof <= 4 && V1.sizeof <= 4)
        {
            return cast(T)(atomicFetchAdd!(T)(val, mod) + mod);
        }
        else static if ( op == "-=" && __traits(isIntegral, T) && T.sizeof <= 4 && V1.sizeof <= 4)
        {
            return cast(T)(atomicFetchSub!(T)(val, mod) - mod);
        }
        else static if ( op == "+=" || op == "-="  || op == "*="  || op == "/=" ||
                   op == "%=" || op == "^^=" || op == "&="  || op == "|=" ||
                   op == "^=" || op == "<<=" || op == ">>=" || op == ">>>=" ) // skip "~="
        {
            HeadUnshared!(T) get, set;

            do
            {
                get = set = atomicLoad!(MemoryOrder.raw)( val );
                mixin( "set " ~ op ~ " mod;" );
            } while ( !casByRef( val, get, set ) );
            return set;
        }
        else
        {
            static assert( false, "Operation not supported." );
        }
    }

    bool casByRef(T,V1,V2)( ref T value, V1 ifThis, V2 writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
    {
        return cas(&value, ifThis, writeThis);
    }

    bool cas(T,V1,V2)( shared(T)* here, const V1 ifThis, V2 writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( !is(T == class) && !is(T U : U*) && __traits( compiles, { *here = writeThis; } ) )
    {
        return casImpl(here, ifThis, writeThis);
    }

    bool cas(T,V1,V2)( shared(T)* here, const shared(V1) ifThis, shared(V2) writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( is(T == class) && __traits( compiles, { *here = writeThis; } ) )
    {
        return casImpl(here, ifThis, writeThis);
    }

    bool cas(T,V1,V2)( shared(T)* here, const shared(V1)* ifThis, shared(V2)* writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( is(T U : U*) && __traits( compiles, { *here = writeThis; } ) )
    {
        return casImpl(here, ifThis, writeThis);
    }

    private bool casImpl(T,V1,V2)( shared(T)* here, V1 ifThis, V2 writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
    in
    {
        assert( atomicPtrIsProperlyAligned( here ) );
    }
    body
    {
        static if ( T.sizeof == byte.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 1 Byte CAS
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
            {
                mov DL, writeThis;
                mov AL, ifThis;
                mov ECX, here;
                lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                cmpxchg [ECX], DL;
                setz AL;
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == short.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 2 Byte CAS
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
            {
                mov DX, writeThis;
                mov AX, ifThis;
                mov ECX, here;
                lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                cmpxchg [ECX], DX;
                setz AL;
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == int.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 4 Byte CAS
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
            {
                mov EDX, writeThis;
                mov EAX, ifThis;
                mov ECX, here;
                lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                cmpxchg [ECX], EDX;
                setz AL;
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == long.sizeof && has64BitCAS )
        {

            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 8 Byte CAS on a 32-Bit Processor
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
            {
                push EDI;
                push EBX;
                lea EDI, writeThis;
                mov EBX, [EDI];
                mov ECX, 4[EDI];
                lea EDI, ifThis;
                mov EAX, [EDI];
                mov EDX, 4[EDI];
                mov EDI, here;
                lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                cmpxchg8b [EDI];
                setz AL;
                pop EBX;
                pop EDI;

            }

        }
        else
        {
            static assert( false, "Invalid template type specified." );
        }
    }


    enum MemoryOrder
    {
        raw,
        acq,
        rel,
        seq,
    }

    deprecated("Please use MemoryOrder instead.")
    alias MemoryOrder msync;


    private
    {
        // NOTE: x86 loads implicitly have acquire semantics so a memory
        //       barrier is only necessary on releases.
        template needsLoadBarrier( MemoryOrder ms )
        {
            enum bool needsLoadBarrier = ms == MemoryOrder.seq;
        }


        // NOTE: x86 stores implicitly have release semantics so a memory
        //       barrier is only necessary on acquires.
        template needsStoreBarrier( MemoryOrder ms )
        {
            enum bool needsStoreBarrier = ms == MemoryOrder.seq;
        }
    }


    HeadUnshared!(T) atomicLoad(MemoryOrder ms = MemoryOrder.seq, T)( ref const shared T val ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
    if (!__traits(isFloating, T))
    {
        static assert( ms != MemoryOrder.rel, "invalid MemoryOrder for atomicLoad()" );
        static assert( __traits(isPOD, T), "argument to atomicLoad() must be POD" );

        static if ( T.sizeof == byte.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 1 Byte Load
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            static if ( needsLoadBarrier!(ms) )
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov DL, 0;
                    mov AL, 0;
                    mov ECX, val;
                    lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                    cmpxchg [ECX], DL;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov EAX, val;
                    mov AL, [EAX];
                }
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == short.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 2 Byte Load
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            static if ( needsLoadBarrier!(ms) )
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov DX, 0;
                    mov AX, 0;
                    mov ECX, val;
                    lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                    cmpxchg [ECX], DX;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov EAX, val;
                    mov AX, [EAX];
                }
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == int.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 4 Byte Load
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            static if ( needsLoadBarrier!(ms) )
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov EDX, 0;
                    mov EAX, 0;
                    mov ECX, val;
                    lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                    cmpxchg [ECX], EDX;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov EAX, val;
                    mov EAX, [EAX];
                }
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == long.sizeof && has64BitCAS )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 8 Byte Load on a 32-Bit Processor
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
            {
                push EDI;
                push EBX;
                mov EBX, 0;
                mov ECX, 0;
                mov EAX, 0;
                mov EDX, 0;
                mov EDI, val;
                lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                cmpxchg8b [EDI];
                pop EBX;
                pop EDI;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            static assert( false, "Invalid template type specified." );
        }
    }

    void atomicStore(MemoryOrder ms = MemoryOrder.seq, T, V1)( ref shared T val, V1 newval ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( __traits( compiles, { val = newval; } ) )
    {
        static assert( ms != MemoryOrder.acq, "invalid MemoryOrder for atomicStore()" );
        static assert( __traits(isPOD, T), "argument to atomicStore() must be POD" );

        static if ( T.sizeof == byte.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 1 Byte Store
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            static if ( needsStoreBarrier!(ms) )
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov EAX, val;
                    mov DL, newval;
                    lock;
                    xchg [EAX], DL;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov EAX, val;
                    mov DL, newval;
                    mov [EAX], DL;
                }
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == short.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 2 Byte Store
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            static if ( needsStoreBarrier!(ms) )
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov EAX, val;
                    mov DX, newval;
                    lock;
                    xchg [EAX], DX;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov EAX, val;
                    mov DX, newval;
                    mov [EAX], DX;
                }
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == int.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 4 Byte Store
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            static if ( needsStoreBarrier!(ms) )
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov EAX, val;
                    mov EDX, newval;
                    lock;
                    xchg [EAX], EDX;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov EAX, val;
                    mov EDX, newval;
                    mov [EAX], EDX;
                }
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == long.sizeof && has64BitCAS )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 8 Byte Store on a 32-Bit Processor
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
            {
                push EDI;
                push EBX;
                lea EDI, newval;
                mov EBX, [EDI];
                mov ECX, 4[EDI];
                mov EDI, val;
                mov EAX, [EDI];
                mov EDX, 4[EDI];
            L1: lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                cmpxchg8b [EDI];
                jne L1;
                pop EBX;
                pop EDI;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            static assert( false, "Invalid template type specified." );
        }
    }


    void atomicFence() nothrow @nogc @safe
    {
        import core.cpuid;

        asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
        {
            naked;

            call sse2;
            test AL, AL;
            jne Lcpuid;

            // Fast path: We have SSE2, so just use mfence.
            mfence;
            jmp Lend;

        Lcpuid:

            // Slow path: We use cpuid to serialize. This is
            // significantly slower than mfence, but is the
            // only serialization facility we have available
            // on older non-SSE2 chips.
            push EBX;

            mov EAX, 0;
            cpuid;

            pop EBX;

        Lend:

            ret;
        }
    }
}
else version (AsmX86_64)
{
    // Uses specialized asm for fast fetch and add operations
    private HeadUnshared!(T) atomicFetchAdd(T)( ref shared T val, size_t mod ) pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
        if ( __traits(isIntegral, T) )
    in
    {
        assert( atomicValueIsProperlyAligned(val));
    }
    body
    {
        size_t tmp = mod;
        asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
        {
            mov RAX, tmp;
            mov RDX, val;
        }
        static if (T.sizeof == 1) asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted { lock; xadd[RDX], AL; }
        else static if (T.sizeof == 2) asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted { lock; xadd[RDX], AX; }
        else static if (T.sizeof == 4) asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted { lock; xadd[RDX], EAX; }
        else static if (T.sizeof == 8) asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted { lock; xadd[RDX], RAX; }

        asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
        {
            mov tmp, RAX;
        }

        return cast(T)tmp;
    }

    private HeadUnshared!(T) atomicFetchSub(T)( ref shared T val, size_t mod ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( __traits(isIntegral, T) )
    {
        return atomicFetchAdd(val, -mod);
    }

    HeadUnshared!(T) atomicOp(string op, T, V1)( ref shared T val, V1 mod ) pure nothrow @nogc
        if ( __traits( compiles, mixin( "*cast(T*)&val" ~ op ~ "mod" ) ) )
    in
    {
        assert( atomicValueIsProperlyAligned(val));
    }
    body
    {
        // binary operators
        //
        // +    -   *   /   %   ^^  &
        // |    ^   <<  >>  >>> ~   in
        // ==   !=  <   <=  >   >=
        static if ( op == "+"  || op == "-"  || op == "*"  || op == "/"   ||
                   op == "%"  || op == "^^" || op == "&"  || op == "|"   ||
                   op == "^"  || op == "<<" || op == ">>" || op == ">>>" ||
                   op == "~"  || // skip "in"
                   op == "==" || op == "!=" || op == "<"  || op == "<="  ||
                   op == ">"  || op == ">=" )
        {
            HeadUnshared!(T) get = atomicLoad!(MemoryOrder.raw)( val );
            mixin( "return get " ~ op ~ " mod;" );
        }
        else
        // assignment operators
        //
        // +=   -=  *=  /=  %=  ^^= &=
        // |=   ^=  <<= >>= >>>=    ~=
        static if ( op == "+=" && __traits(isIntegral, T) && __traits(isIntegral, V1))
        {
            return cast(T)(atomicFetchAdd!(T)(val, mod) + mod);
        }
        else static if ( op == "-=" && __traits(isIntegral, T) && __traits(isIntegral, V1))
        {
            return cast(T)(atomicFetchSub!(T)(val, mod) - mod);
        }
        else static if ( op == "+=" || op == "-="  || op == "*="  || op == "/=" ||
                   op == "%=" || op == "^^=" || op == "&="  || op == "|=" ||
                   op == "^=" || op == "<<=" || op == ">>=" || op == ">>>=" ) // skip "~="
        {
            HeadUnshared!(T) get, set;

            do
            {
                get = set = atomicLoad!(MemoryOrder.raw)( val );
                mixin( "set " ~ op ~ " mod;" );
            } while ( !casByRef( val, get, set ) );
            return set;
        }
        else
        {
            static assert( false, "Operation not supported." );
        }
    }


    bool casByRef(T,V1,V2)( ref T value, V1 ifThis, V2 writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
    {
        return cas(&value, ifThis, writeThis);
    }

    bool cas(T,V1,V2)( shared(T)* here, const V1 ifThis, V2 writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( !is(T == class) && !is(T U : U*) &&  __traits( compiles, { *here = writeThis; } ) )
    {
        return casImpl(here, ifThis, writeThis);
    }

    bool cas(T,V1,V2)( shared(T)* here, const shared(V1) ifThis, shared(V2) writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( is(T == class) && __traits( compiles, { *here = writeThis; } ) )
    {
        return casImpl(here, ifThis, writeThis);
    }

    bool cas(T,V1,V2)( shared(T)* here, const shared(V1)* ifThis, shared(V2)* writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( is(T U : U*) && __traits( compiles, { *here = writeThis; } ) )
    {
        return casImpl(here, ifThis, writeThis);
    }

    private bool casImpl(T,V1,V2)( shared(T)* here, V1 ifThis, V2 writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
    in
    {
        assert( atomicPtrIsProperlyAligned( here ) );
    }
    body
    {
        static if ( T.sizeof == byte.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 1 Byte CAS
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
            {
                mov DL, writeThis;
                mov AL, ifThis;
                mov RCX, here;
                lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                cmpxchg [RCX], DL;
                setz AL;
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == short.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 2 Byte CAS
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
            {
                mov DX, writeThis;
                mov AX, ifThis;
                mov RCX, here;
                lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                cmpxchg [RCX], DX;
                setz AL;
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == int.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 4 Byte CAS
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
            {
                mov EDX, writeThis;
                mov EAX, ifThis;
                mov RCX, here;
                lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                cmpxchg [RCX], EDX;
                setz AL;
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == long.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 8 Byte CAS on a 64-Bit Processor
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
            {
                mov RDX, writeThis;
                mov RAX, ifThis;
                mov RCX, here;
                lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                cmpxchg [RCX], RDX;
                setz AL;
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == long.sizeof*2 && has128BitCAS)
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 16 Byte CAS on a 64-Bit Processor
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            version (Win64){
                //Windows 64 calling convention uses different registers.
                //DMD appears to reverse the register order.
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    push RDI;
                    push RBX;
                    mov R9, writeThis;
                    mov R10, ifThis;
                    mov R11, here;

                    mov RDI, R9;
                    mov RBX, [RDI];
                    mov RCX, 8[RDI];

                    mov RDI, R10;
                    mov RAX, [RDI];
                    mov RDX, 8[RDI];

                    mov RDI, R11;
                    lock;
                    cmpxchg16b [RDI];
                    setz AL;
                    pop RBX;
                    pop RDI;
                }

            }else{

                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    push RDI;
                    push RBX;
                    lea RDI, writeThis;
                    mov RBX, [RDI];
                    mov RCX, 8[RDI];
                    lea RDI, ifThis;
                    mov RAX, [RDI];
                    mov RDX, 8[RDI];
                    mov RDI, here;
                    lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                    cmpxchg16b [RDI];
                    setz AL;
                    pop RBX;
                    pop RDI;
                }
            }
        }
        else
        {
            static assert( false, "Invalid template type specified." );
        }
    }


    enum MemoryOrder
    {
        raw,
        acq,
        rel,
        seq,
    }

    deprecated("Please use MemoryOrder instead.")
    alias MemoryOrder msync;


    private
    {
        // NOTE: x86 loads implicitly have acquire semantics so a memory
        //       barrier is only necessary on releases.
        template needsLoadBarrier( MemoryOrder ms )
        {
            enum bool needsLoadBarrier = ms == MemoryOrder.seq;
        }


        // NOTE: x86 stores implicitly have release semantics so a memory
        //       barrier is only necessary on acquires.
        template needsStoreBarrier( MemoryOrder ms )
        {
            enum bool needsStoreBarrier = ms == MemoryOrder.seq;
        }
    }


    HeadUnshared!(T) atomicLoad(MemoryOrder ms = MemoryOrder.seq, T)( ref const shared T val ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
    if (!__traits(isFloating, T))
    {
        static assert( ms != MemoryOrder.rel, "invalid MemoryOrder for atomicLoad()" );
        static assert( __traits(isPOD, T), "argument to atomicLoad() must be POD" );

        static if ( T.sizeof == byte.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 1 Byte Load
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            static if ( needsLoadBarrier!(ms) )
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov DL, 0;
                    mov AL, 0;
                    mov RCX, val;
                    lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                    cmpxchg [RCX], DL;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov RAX, val;
                    mov AL, [RAX];
                }
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == short.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 2 Byte Load
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            static if ( needsLoadBarrier!(ms) )
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov DX, 0;
                    mov AX, 0;
                    mov RCX, val;
                    lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                    cmpxchg [RCX], DX;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov RAX, val;
                    mov AX, [RAX];
                }
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == int.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 4 Byte Load
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            static if ( needsLoadBarrier!(ms) )
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov EDX, 0;
                    mov EAX, 0;
                    mov RCX, val;
                    lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                    cmpxchg [RCX], EDX;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov RAX, val;
                    mov EAX, [RAX];
                }
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == long.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 8 Byte Load
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            static if ( needsLoadBarrier!(ms) )
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov RDX, 0;
                    mov RAX, 0;
                    mov RCX, val;
                    lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                    cmpxchg [RCX], RDX;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov RAX, val;
                    mov RAX, [RAX];
                }
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == long.sizeof*2 && has128BitCAS )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 16 Byte Load on a 64-Bit Processor
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            version (Win64){
                size_t[2] retVal;
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    push RDI;
                    push RBX;
                    mov RDI, val;
                    mov RBX, 0;
                    mov RCX, 0;
                    mov RAX, 0;
                    mov RDX, 0;
                    lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                    cmpxchg16b [RDI];
                    lea RDI, retVal;
                    mov [RDI], RAX;
                    mov 8[RDI], RDX;
                    pop RBX;
                    pop RDI;
                }

                static if (is(T:U[], U))
                {
                    pragma(inline, true)
                    static typeof(return) toTrusted(size_t[2] retVal) @trusted
                    {
                        return *(cast(typeof(return)*) retVal.ptr);
                    }

                    return toTrusted(retVal);
                }
                else
                {
                    return cast(typeof(return)) retVal;
                }
            }else{
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    push RDI;
                    push RBX;
                    mov RBX, 0;
                    mov RCX, 0;
                    mov RAX, 0;
                    mov RDX, 0;
                    mov RDI, val;
                    lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                    cmpxchg16b [RDI];
                    pop RBX;
                    pop RDI;
                }
            }
        }
        else
        {
            static assert( false, "Invalid template type specified." );
        }
    }


    void atomicStore(MemoryOrder ms = MemoryOrder.seq, T, V1)( ref shared T val, V1 newval ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( __traits( compiles, { val = newval; } ) )
    {
        static assert( ms != MemoryOrder.acq, "invalid MemoryOrder for atomicStore()" );
        static assert( __traits(isPOD, T), "argument to atomicStore() must be POD" );

        static if ( T.sizeof == byte.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 1 Byte Store
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            static if ( needsStoreBarrier!(ms) )
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov RAX, val;
                    mov DL, newval;
                    lock;
                    xchg [RAX], DL;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov RAX, val;
                    mov DL, newval;
                    mov [RAX], DL;
                }
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == short.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 2 Byte Store
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            static if ( needsStoreBarrier!(ms) )
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov RAX, val;
                    mov DX, newval;
                    lock;
                    xchg [RAX], DX;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov RAX, val;
                    mov DX, newval;
                    mov [RAX], DX;
                }
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == int.sizeof )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 4 Byte Store
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            static if ( needsStoreBarrier!(ms) )
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov RAX, val;
                    mov EDX, newval;
                    lock;
                    xchg [RAX], EDX;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov RAX, val;
                    mov EDX, newval;
                    mov [RAX], EDX;
                }
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == long.sizeof && has64BitCAS )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 8 Byte Store on a 64-Bit Processor
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

            static if ( needsStoreBarrier!(ms) )
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov RAX, val;
                    mov RDX, newval;
                    lock;
                    xchg [RAX], RDX;
                }
            }
            else
            {
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    mov RAX, val;
                    mov RDX, newval;
                    mov [RAX], RDX;
                }
            }
        }
        else static if ( T.sizeof == long.sizeof*2 && has128BitCAS )
        {
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            // 16 Byte Store on a 64-Bit Processor
            //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
            version (Win64){
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    push RDI;
                    push RBX;
                    mov R9, val;
                    mov R10, newval;

                    mov RDI, R10;
                    mov RBX, [RDI];
                    mov RCX, 8[RDI];

                    mov RDI, R9;
                    mov RAX, [RDI];
                    mov RDX, 8[RDI];

                    L1: lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                    cmpxchg16b [RDI];
                    jne L1;
                    pop RBX;
                    pop RDI;
                }
            }else{
                asm pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
                {
                    push RDI;
                    push RBX;
                    lea RDI, newval;
                    mov RBX, [RDI];
                    mov RCX, 8[RDI];
                    mov RDI, val;
                    mov RAX, [RDI];
                    mov RDX, 8[RDI];
                    L1: lock; // lock always needed to make this op atomic
                    cmpxchg16b [RDI];
                    jne L1;
                    pop RBX;
                    pop RDI;
                }
            }
        }
        else
        {
            static assert( false, "Invalid template type specified." );
        }
    }


    void atomicFence() nothrow @nogc @safe
    {
        // SSE2 is always present in 64-bit x86 chips.
        asm nothrow @nogc @trusted
        {
            naked;

            mfence;
            ret;
        }
    }
}
else version (GNU)
{
    import gcc.builtins;

    HeadUnshared!(T) atomicOp(string op, T, V1)( ref shared T val, V1 mod ) pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
        if ( __traits( compiles, mixin( "*cast(T*)&val" ~ op ~ "mod" ) ) )
    {
        // binary operators
        //
        // +    -   *   /   %   ^^  &
        // |    ^   <<  >>  >>> ~   in
        // ==   !=  <   <=  >   >=
        static if ( op == "+"  || op == "-"  || op == "*"  || op == "/"   ||
                   op == "%"  || op == "^^" || op == "&"  || op == "|"   ||
                   op == "^"  || op == "<<" || op == ">>" || op == ">>>" ||
                   op == "~"  || // skip "in"
                   op == "==" || op == "!=" || op == "<"  || op == "<="  ||
                   op == ">"  || op == ">=" )
        {
            HeadUnshared!(T) get = atomicLoad!(MemoryOrder.raw)( val );
            mixin( "return get " ~ op ~ " mod;" );
        }
        else
        // assignment operators
        //
        // +=   -=  *=  /=  %=  ^^= &=
        // |=   ^=  <<= >>= >>>=    ~=
        static if ( op == "+=" || op == "-="  || op == "*="  || op == "/=" ||
                   op == "%=" || op == "^^=" || op == "&="  || op == "|=" ||
                   op == "^=" || op == "<<=" || op == ">>=" || op == ">>>=" ) // skip "~="
        {
            HeadUnshared!(T) get, set;

            do
            {
                get = set = atomicLoad!(MemoryOrder.raw)( val );
                mixin( "set " ~ op ~ " mod;" );
            } while ( !cas( &val, get, set ) );
            return set;
        }
        else
        {
            static assert( false, "Operation not supported." );
        }
    }


    bool cas(T,V1,V2)( shared(T)* here, const V1 ifThis, V2 writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( !is(T == class) && !is(T U : U*) && __traits( compiles, { *here = writeThis; } ) )
    {
        return casImpl(here, ifThis, writeThis);
    }

    bool cas(T,V1,V2)( shared(T)* here, const shared(V1) ifThis, shared(V2) writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( is(T == class) && __traits( compiles, { *here = writeThis; } ) )
    {
        return casImpl(here, ifThis, writeThis);
    }

    bool cas(T,V1,V2)( shared(T)* here, const shared(V1)* ifThis, shared(V2)* writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
        if ( is(T U : U*) && __traits( compiles, { *here = writeThis; } ) )
    {
        return casImpl(here, ifThis, writeThis);
    }

    private bool casImpl(T,V1,V2)( shared(T)* here, V1 ifThis, V2 writeThis ) pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
    {
        bool res = void;

        static if (GNU_Have_Atomics || GNU_Have_LibAtomic)
        {
            static if (T.sizeof == byte.sizeof)
            {
                res = __atomic_compare_exchange_1(here, cast(void*) &ifThis, *cast(ubyte*) &writeThis,
                                                  false, MemoryOrder.seq, MemoryOrder.seq);
            }
            else static if (T.sizeof == short.sizeof)
            {
                res = __atomic_compare_exchange_2(here, cast(void*) &ifThis, *cast(ushort*) &writeThis,
                                                  false, MemoryOrder.seq, MemoryOrder.seq);
            }
            else static if (T.sizeof == int.sizeof)
            {
                res = __atomic_compare_exchange_4(here, cast(void*) &ifThis, *cast(uint*) &writeThis,
                                                  false, MemoryOrder.seq, MemoryOrder.seq);
            }
            else static if (T.sizeof == long.sizeof && GNU_Have_64Bit_Atomics)
            {
                res = __atomic_compare_exchange_8(here, cast(void*) &ifThis, *cast(ulong*) &writeThis,
                                                  false, MemoryOrder.seq, MemoryOrder.seq);
            }
            else static if (GNU_Have_LibAtomic)
            {
                res = __atomic_compare_exchange(T.sizeof, here, cast(void*) &ifThis, cast(void*) &writeThis,
                                                MemoryOrder.seq, MemoryOrder.seq);
            }
            else
                static assert(0, "Invalid template type specified.");
        }
        else
        {
            static if (T.sizeof == byte.sizeof)
                alias U = byte;
            else static if (T.sizeof == short.sizeof)
                alias U = short;
            else static if (T.sizeof == int.sizeof)
                alias U = int;
            else static if (T.sizeof == long.sizeof)
                alias U = long;
            else
                static assert(0, "Invalid template type specified.");

            getAtomicMutex.lock();
            scope(exit) getAtomicMutex.unlock();

            if (*cast(U*)here == *cast(U*)&ifThis)
            {
                *here = writeThis;
                res = true;
            }
            else
                res = false;
        }

        return res;
    }


    // Memory model types for the __atomic* builtins.
    enum MemoryOrder
    {
        raw = 0,
        acq = 2,
        rel = 3,
        seq = 5,
    }

    deprecated("Please use MemoryOrder instead.")
    alias MemoryOrder msync;


    HeadUnshared!(T) atomicLoad(MemoryOrder ms = MemoryOrder.seq, T)( ref const shared T val ) pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
    if (!__traits(isFloating, T))
    {
        static assert(ms != MemoryOrder.rel, "Invalid MemoryOrder for atomicLoad");
        static assert(__traits(isPOD, T), "argument to atomicLoad() must be POD");

        static if (GNU_Have_Atomics || GNU_Have_LibAtomic)
        {
            static if (T.sizeof == ubyte.sizeof)
            {
                ubyte value = __atomic_load_1(&val, ms);
                return *cast(HeadUnshared!T*) &value;
            }
            else static if (T.sizeof == ushort.sizeof)
            {
                ushort value = __atomic_load_2(&val, ms);
                return *cast(HeadUnshared!T*) &value;
            }
            else static if (T.sizeof == uint.sizeof)
            {
                uint value = __atomic_load_4(&val, ms);
                return *cast(HeadUnshared!T*) &value;
            }
            else static if (T.sizeof == ulong.sizeof && GNU_Have_64Bit_Atomics)
            {
                ulong value = __atomic_load_8(&val, ms);
                return *cast(HeadUnshared!T*) &value;
            }
            else static if (GNU_Have_LibAtomic)
            {
                T value;
                __atomic_load(T.sizeof, &val, cast(void*)&value, ms);
                return *cast(HeadUnshared!T*) &value;
            }
            else
                static assert(0, "Invalid template type specified.");
        }
        else
        {
            getAtomicMutex.lock();
            scope(exit) getAtomicMutex.unlock();
            return *cast(HeadUnshared!T*)&val;
        }
    }


    void atomicStore(MemoryOrder ms = MemoryOrder.seq, T, V1)( ref shared T val, V1 newval ) pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
        if ( __traits( compiles, { val = newval; } ) )
    {
        static assert(ms != MemoryOrder.acq, "Invalid MemoryOrder for atomicStore");
        static assert(__traits(isPOD, T), "argument to atomicLoad() must be POD");

        static if (GNU_Have_Atomics || GNU_Have_LibAtomic)
        {
            static if (T.sizeof == ubyte.sizeof)
            {
                __atomic_store_1(&val, *cast(ubyte*) &newval, ms);
            }
            else static if (T.sizeof == ushort.sizeof)
            {
                __atomic_store_2(&val, *cast(ushort*) &newval, ms);
            }
            else static if (T.sizeof == uint.sizeof)
            {
                __atomic_store_4(&val, *cast(uint*) &newval, ms);
            }
            else static if (T.sizeof == ulong.sizeof && GNU_Have_64Bit_Atomics)
            {
                __atomic_store_8(&val, *cast(ulong*) &newval, ms);
            }
            else static if (GNU_Have_LibAtomic)
            {
                __atomic_store(T.sizeof, &val, cast(void*)&newval, ms);
            }
            else
                static assert(0, "Invalid template type specified.");
        }
        else
        {
            getAtomicMutex.lock();
            val = newval;
            getAtomicMutex.unlock();
        }
    }


    void atomicFence() nothrow @nogc
    {
        static if (GNU_Have_Atomics || GNU_Have_LibAtomic)
            __atomic_thread_fence(MemoryOrder.seq);
        else
        {
            getAtomicMutex.lock();
            getAtomicMutex.unlock();
        }
    }

    static if (!GNU_Have_Atomics && !GNU_Have_LibAtomic)
    {
        // Use system mutex for atomics, faking the purity of the functions so
        // that they can be used in pure/nothrow/@safe code.
        extern (C) private pure @trusted @nogc nothrow
        {
            static if (GNU_Thread_Model == ThreadModel.Posix)
            {
                import core.sys.posix.pthread;
                alias atomicMutexHandle = pthread_mutex_t;

                pragma(mangle, "pthread_mutex_init") int fakePureMutexInit(pthread_mutex_t*, pthread_mutexattr_t*);
                pragma(mangle, "pthread_mutex_lock") int fakePureMutexLock(pthread_mutex_t*);
                pragma(mangle, "pthread_mutex_unlock") int fakePureMutexUnlock(pthread_mutex_t*);
            }
            else static if (GNU_Thread_Model == ThreadModel.Win32)
            {
                import core.sys.windows.winbase;
                alias atomicMutexHandle = CRITICAL_SECTION;

                pragma(mangle, "InitializeCriticalSection") int fakePureMutexInit(CRITICAL_SECTION*);
                pragma(mangle, "EnterCriticalSection") void fakePureMutexLock(CRITICAL_SECTION*);
                pragma(mangle, "LeaveCriticalSection") int fakePureMutexUnlock(CRITICAL_SECTION*);
            }
            else
            {
                alias atomicMutexHandle = int;
            }
        }

        // Implements lock/unlock operations.
        private struct AtomicMutex
        {
            int lock() pure @trusted @nogc nothrow
            {
                static if (GNU_Thread_Model == ThreadModel.Posix)
                {
                    if (!_inited)
                    {
                        fakePureMutexInit(&_handle, null);
                        _inited = true;
                    }
                    return fakePureMutexLock(&_handle);
                }
                else
                {
                    static if (GNU_Thread_Model == ThreadModel.Win32)
                    {
                        if (!_inited)
                        {
                            fakePureMutexInit(&_handle);
                            _inited = true;
                        }
                        fakePureMutexLock(&_handle);
                    }
                    return 0;
                }
            }

            int unlock() pure @trusted @nogc nothrow
            {
                static if (GNU_Thread_Model == ThreadModel.Posix)
                    return fakePureMutexUnlock(&_handle);
                else
                {
                    static if (GNU_Thread_Model == ThreadModel.Win32)
                        fakePureMutexUnlock(&_handle);
                    return 0;
                }
            }

        private:
            atomicMutexHandle _handle;
            bool _inited;
        }

        // Internal static mutex reference.
        private AtomicMutex* _getAtomicMutex() @trusted @nogc nothrow
        {
            __gshared static AtomicMutex mutex;
            return &mutex;
        }

        // Pure alias for _getAtomicMutex.
        pragma(mangle, _getAtomicMutex.mangleof)
        private AtomicMutex* getAtomicMutex() pure @trusted @nogc nothrow @property;
    }
}

// This is an ABI adapter that works on all architectures.  It type puns
// floats and doubles to ints and longs, atomically loads them, then puns
// them back.  This is necessary so that they get returned in floating
// point instead of integer registers.
HeadUnshared!(T) atomicLoad(MemoryOrder ms = MemoryOrder.seq, T)( ref const shared T val ) pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
if (__traits(isFloating, T))
{
    static if (T.sizeof == int.sizeof)
    {
        static assert(is(T : float));
        auto ptr = cast(const shared int*) &val;
        auto asInt = atomicLoad!(ms)(*ptr);
        return *(cast(typeof(return)*) &asInt);
    }
    else static if (T.sizeof == long.sizeof)
    {
        static assert(is(T : double));
        auto ptr = cast(const shared long*) &val;
        auto asLong = atomicLoad!(ms)(*ptr);
        return *(cast(typeof(return)*) &asLong);
    }
    else
    {
        static assert(0, "Cannot atomically load 80-bit reals.");
    }
}

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
// Unit Tests
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////


version (unittest)
{
    void testCAS(T)( T val ) pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
    in
    {
        assert(val !is T.init);
    }
    body
    {
        T         base = cast(T)null;
        shared(T) atom = cast(shared(T))null;

        assert( base !is val, T.stringof );
        assert( atom is base, T.stringof );

        assert( cas( &atom, base, val ), T.stringof );
        assert( atom is val, T.stringof );
        assert( !cas( &atom, base, base ), T.stringof );
        assert( atom is val, T.stringof );
    }

    void testLoadStore(MemoryOrder ms = MemoryOrder.seq, T)( T val = T.init + 1 ) pure nothrow @nogc @trusted
    {
        T         base = cast(T) 0;
        shared(T) atom = cast(T) 0;

        assert( base !is val );
        assert( atom is base );
        atomicStore!(ms)( atom, val );
        base = atomicLoad!(ms)( atom );

        assert( base is val, T.stringof );
        assert( atom is val );
    }


    void testType(T)( T val = T.init + 1 ) pure nothrow @nogc @safe
    {
        testCAS!(T)( val );
        testLoadStore!(MemoryOrder.seq, T)( val );
        testLoadStore!(MemoryOrder.raw, T)( val );
    }

    @safe pure nothrow unittest
    {
        testType!(bool)();

        testType!(byte)();
        testType!(ubyte)();

        testType!(short)();
        testType!(ushort)();

        testType!(int)();
        testType!(uint)();

        testType!(shared int*)();

        static class Klass {}
        testCAS!(shared Klass)( new shared(Klass) );

        testType!(float)(1.0f);

        static if ( has64BitCAS )
        {
            testType!(double)(1.0);
            testType!(long)();
            testType!(ulong)();
        }

        shared(size_t) i;

        atomicOp!"+="( i, cast(size_t) 1 );
        assert( i == 1 );

        atomicOp!"-="( i, cast(size_t) 1 );
        assert( i == 0 );

        shared float f = 0;
        atomicOp!"+="( f, 1 );
        assert( f == 1 );

        static if ( has64BitCAS )
        {
            shared double d = 0;
            atomicOp!"+="( d, 1 );
            assert( d == 1 );
        }
    }

    pure nothrow unittest
    {
        static if (has128BitCAS)
        {
            struct DoubleValue
            {
                long value1;
                long value2;
            }

            align(16) shared DoubleValue a;
            atomicStore(a, DoubleValue(1,2));
            assert(a.value1 == 1 && a.value2 ==2);

            while (!cas(&a, DoubleValue(1,2), DoubleValue(3,4))){}
            assert(a.value1 == 3 && a.value2 ==4);

            align(16) DoubleValue b = atomicLoad(a);
            assert(b.value1 == 3 && b.value2 ==4);
        }

        version (D_LP64)
        {
            enum hasDWCAS = has128BitCAS;
        }
        else
        {
            enum hasDWCAS = has64BitCAS;
        }

        static if (hasDWCAS)
        {
            static struct List { size_t gen; List* next; }
            shared(List) head;
            assert(cas(&head, shared(List)(0, null), shared(List)(1, cast(List*)1)));
            assert(head.gen == 1);
            assert(cast(size_t)head.next == 1);
        }
    }

    pure nothrow unittest
    {
        static struct S { int val; }
        auto s = shared(S)(1);

        shared(S*) ptr;

        // head unshared
        shared(S)* ifThis = null;
        shared(S)* writeThis = &s;
        assert(ptr is null);
        assert(cas(&ptr, ifThis, writeThis));
        assert(ptr is writeThis);

        // head shared
        shared(S*) ifThis2 = writeThis;
        shared(S*) writeThis2 = null;
        assert(cas(&ptr, ifThis2, writeThis2));
        assert(ptr is null);

        // head unshared target doesn't want atomic CAS
        shared(S)* ptr2;
        static assert(!__traits(compiles, cas(&ptr2, ifThis, writeThis)));
        static assert(!__traits(compiles, cas(&ptr2, ifThis2, writeThis2)));
    }

    unittest
    {
        import core.thread;

        // Use heap memory to ensure an optimizing
        // compiler doesn't put things in registers.
        uint* x = new uint();
        bool* f = new bool();
        uint* r = new uint();

        auto thr = new Thread(()
        {
            while (!*f)
            {
            }

            atomicFence();

            *r = *x;
        });

        thr.start();

        *x = 42;

        atomicFence();

        *f = true;

        atomicFence();

        thr.join();

        assert(*r == 42);
    }

    // === atomicFetchAdd and atomicFetchSub operations ====
    pure nothrow @nogc @safe unittest
    {
        shared ubyte u8 = 1;
        shared ushort u16 = 2;
        shared uint u32 = 3;
        shared byte i8 = 5;
        shared short i16 = 6;
        shared int i32 = 7;

        assert(atomicOp!"+="(u8, 8) == 9);
        assert(atomicOp!"+="(u16, 8) == 10);
        assert(atomicOp!"+="(u32, 8) == 11);
        assert(atomicOp!"+="(i8, 8) == 13);
        assert(atomicOp!"+="(i16, 8) == 14);
        assert(atomicOp!"+="(i32, 8) == 15);
        version (AsmX86_64)
        {
            shared ulong u64 = 4;
            shared long i64 = 8;
            assert(atomicOp!"+="(u64, 8) == 12);
            assert(atomicOp!"+="(i64, 8) == 16);
        }
    }

    pure nothrow @nogc @safe unittest
    {
        shared ubyte u8 = 1;
        shared ushort u16 = 2;
        shared uint u32 = 3;
        shared byte i8 = 5;
        shared short i16 = 6;
        shared int i32 = 7;

        assert(atomicOp!"-="(u8, 1) == 0);
        assert(atomicOp!"-="(u16, 1) == 1);
        assert(atomicOp!"-="(u32, 1) == 2);
        assert(atomicOp!"-="(i8, 1) == 4);
        assert(atomicOp!"-="(i16, 1) == 5);
        assert(atomicOp!"-="(i32, 1) == 6);
        version (AsmX86_64)
        {
            shared ulong u64 = 4;
            shared long i64 = 8;
            assert(atomicOp!"-="(u64, 1) == 3);
            assert(atomicOp!"-="(i64, 1) == 7);
        }
    }

    pure nothrow @nogc @safe unittest // issue 16651
    {
        shared ulong a = 2;
        uint b = 1;
        atomicOp!"-="( a, b );
        assert(a == 1);

        shared uint c = 2;
        ubyte d = 1;
        atomicOp!"-="( c, d );
        assert(c == 1);
    }
}