libphobos/src/std/container/array.d

/**
 * This module provides an `Array` type with deterministic memory usage not
 * reliant on the GC, as an alternative to the built-in arrays.
 *
 * This module is a submodule of $(MREF std, container).
 *
 * Source: $(PHOBOSSRC std/container/array.d)
 *
 * Copyright: 2010- Andrei Alexandrescu. All rights reserved by the respective holders.
 *
 * License: Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0.
 * (See accompanying file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at $(HTTP
 * boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt)).
 *
 * Authors: $(HTTP erdani.com, Andrei Alexandrescu)
 *
 * $(SCRIPT inhibitQuickIndex = 1;)
 */
module std.container.array;

import core.exception : RangeError;
import std.range.primitives;
import std.traits;

public import std.container.util;

pure @system unittest
{
    // We test multiple array lengths in order to ensure that the "a1.capacity == a0.length" test is meaningful
    // for the version in which the constructor uses insertBack
    // (because for some lengths, the test passes even without reserve).
    for (size_t n = 0; n < 100; ++n)
    {
        float[] a0;
        {
            import std.range : iota;
            import std.array;
            import std.algorithm.iteration : map;
            a0 = iota (0, n).map!(i => i * 1.1f).array;
        }

        auto a1 = Array!float(a0);

        // We check that a1 has the same length and contents as a0:
        {
            assert(a1.length == a0.length);

            // I wish that I could write "assert(a1[] == a0[]);",
            // but the compiler complains: "Error: incompatible types for `(a1.opSlice()) == (a0[])`: `RangeT!(Array!float)` and `float[]`".
            import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
            assert(equal(a1[], a0[]));
        }

        // We check that a1's constructor has called reserve (to maintain good performance):
        assert(a1.capacity == a0.length);
    }
}

pure @system unittest
{
    // To avoid bad performance, we check that an Array constructed from an empty range
    // does not initialize its RefCountedStore object, even after a call to "reserve(0)".

    {
        Array!float a1;
        assert(! a1._data.refCountedStore.isInitialized);
        a1.reserve(0);
        assert(! a1._data.refCountedStore.isInitialized);
    }

    {
        float[] a0 = [];
        Array!float a1 = a0;
        // [2021-09-26] TODO: Investigate RefCounted.
        //assert(! a1._data.refCountedStore.isInitialized);
        a1.reserve(0);
        // [2021-09-26] TODO: Investigate RefCounted.
        //assert(! a1._data.refCountedStore.isInitialized);
    }
}

///
pure @system unittest
{
    auto arr = Array!int(0, 2, 3);
    assert(arr[0] == 0);
    assert(arr.front == 0);
    assert(arr.back == 3);

    // reserve space
    arr.reserve(1000);
    assert(arr.length == 3);
    assert(arr.capacity >= 1000);

    // insertion
    arr.insertBefore(arr[1..$], 1);
    assert(arr.front == 0);
    assert(arr.length == 4);

    arr.insertBack(4);
    assert(arr.back == 4);
    assert(arr.length == 5);

    // set elements
    arr[1] *= 42;
    assert(arr[1] == 42);
}

///
pure @system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    auto arr = Array!int(1, 2, 3);

    // concat
    auto b = Array!int(11, 12, 13);
    arr ~= b;
    assert(arr.length == 6);

    // slicing
    assert(arr[1 .. 3].equal([2, 3]));

    // remove
    arr.linearRemove(arr[1 .. 3]);
    assert(arr[0 .. 2].equal([1, 11]));
}

/// `Array!bool` packs together values efficiently by allocating one bit per element
pure @system unittest
{
    auto arr = Array!bool([true, true, false, true, false]);
    assert(arr.length == 5);
}

private struct RangeT(A)
{
    /* Workaround for https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=13629
       See also: http://forum.dlang.org/post/vbmwhzvawhnkoxrhbnyb@forum.dlang.org
    */
    private A[1] _outer_;
    private @property ref inout(A) _outer() inout { return _outer_[0]; }

    private size_t _a, _b;

    /* E is different from T when A is more restrictively qualified than T:
       immutable(Array!int) => T == int, E = immutable(int) */
    alias E = typeof(_outer_[0]._data._payload[0]);

    private this(ref A data, size_t a, size_t b)
    {
        _outer_ = data;
        _a = a;
        _b = b;
    }

    @property RangeT save()
    {
        return this;
    }

    @property bool empty() @safe pure nothrow const
    {
        return _a >= _b;
    }

    @property size_t length() @safe pure nothrow const
    {
        return _b - _a;
    }
    alias opDollar = length;

    @property ref inout(E) front() inout
    {
        assert(!empty, "Attempting to access the front of an empty Array");
        return _outer[_a];
    }
    @property ref inout(E) back() inout
    {
        assert(!empty, "Attempting to access the back of an empty Array");
        return _outer[_b - 1];
    }

    void popFront() @safe @nogc pure nothrow
    {
        assert(!empty, "Attempting to popFront an empty Array");
        ++_a;
    }

    void popBack() @safe @nogc pure nothrow
    {
        assert(!empty, "Attempting to popBack an empty Array");
        --_b;
    }

    static if (isMutable!A)
    {
        import std.algorithm.mutation : move;

        E moveFront()
        {
            assert(!empty, "Attempting to moveFront an empty Array");
            assert(_a < _outer.length,
                "Attempting to moveFront using an out of bounds low index on an Array");
            return move(_outer._data._payload[_a]);
        }

        E moveBack()
        {
            assert(!empty, "Attempting to moveBack an empty Array");
            assert(_b - 1 < _outer.length,
                "Attempting to moveBack using an out of bounds high index on an Array");
            return move(_outer._data._payload[_b - 1]);
        }

        E moveAt(size_t i)
        {
            assert(_a + i < _b,
                "Attempting to moveAt using an out of bounds index on an Array");
            assert(_a + i < _outer.length,
                "Cannot move past the end of the array");
            return move(_outer._data._payload[_a + i]);
        }
    }

    ref inout(E) opIndex(size_t i) inout
    {
        assert(_a + i < _b,
            "Attempting to fetch using an out of bounds index on an Array");
        return _outer[_a + i];
    }

    RangeT opSlice()
    {
        return typeof(return)(_outer, _a, _b);
    }

    RangeT opSlice(size_t i, size_t j)
    {
        assert(i <= j && _a + j <= _b,
            "Attempting to slice using an out of bounds indices on an Array");
        return typeof(return)(_outer, _a + i, _a + j);
    }

    RangeT!(const(A)) opSlice() const
    {
        return typeof(return)(_outer, _a, _b);
    }

    RangeT!(const(A)) opSlice(size_t i, size_t j) const
    {
        assert(i <= j && _a + j <= _b,
            "Attempting to slice using an out of bounds indices on an Array");
        return typeof(return)(_outer, _a + i, _a + j);
    }

    static if (isMutable!A)
    {
        void opSliceAssign(E value)
        {
            assert(_b <= _outer.length,
                "Attempting to assign using an out of bounds indices on an Array");
            _outer[_a .. _b] = value;
        }

        void opSliceAssign(E value, size_t i, size_t j)
        {
            assert(_a + j <= _b,
                "Attempting to slice assign using an out of bounds indices on an Array");
            _outer[_a + i .. _a + j] = value;
        }

        void opSliceUnary(string op)()
        if (op == "++" || op == "--")
        {
            assert(_b <= _outer.length,
                "Attempting to slice using an out of bounds indices on an Array");
            mixin(op~"_outer[_a .. _b];");
        }

        void opSliceUnary(string op)(size_t i, size_t j)
        if (op == "++" || op == "--")
        {
            assert(_a + j <= _b,
                "Attempting to slice using an out of bounds indices on an Array");
            mixin(op~"_outer[_a + i .. _a + j];");
        }

        void opSliceOpAssign(string op)(E value)
        {
            assert(_b <= _outer.length,
                "Attempting to slice using an out of bounds indices on an Array");
            mixin("_outer[_a .. _b] "~op~"= value;");
        }

        void opSliceOpAssign(string op)(E value, size_t i, size_t j)
        {
            assert(_a + j <= _b,
                "Attempting to slice using an out of bounds indices on an Array");
            mixin("_outer[_a + i .. _a + j] "~op~"= value;");
        }
    }
}

@system unittest
{
    enum : bool { display = false }
    static if (display)
    {
        import std.stdio;
        enum { nDigitsForPointer = 2 * size_t.sizeof, nDigitsForNObjects = 4 }
    }

    static struct S
    {
        static size_t s_nConstructed;
        static size_t s_nDestroyed;
        static void throwIfTooMany()
        {
            if (s_nConstructed >= 7) throw new Exception ("Ka-boom !");
        }

        uint _i;

        ~this()
        {
            static if (display) writefln("@%*Xh: Destroying.", nDigitsForPointer, &this);
            ++s_nDestroyed;
        }

        this(uint i)
        {
            static if (display) writefln("@%*Xh: Constructing.", nDigitsForPointer, &this);
            _i = i;
            ++s_nConstructed;
            throwIfTooMany();
        }

        this(this)
        {
            static if (display) writefln("@%*Xh: Copying.", nDigitsForPointer, &this);
            ++s_nConstructed;
            throwIfTooMany();
        }
    }

    try
    {
        auto a = Array!S (S(0), S(1), S(2), S(3));
        static if (display) writefln("@%*Xh: This is where the array elements are.", nDigitsForPointer, &a [0]);
    }
    catch (Exception e)
    {
        static if (display) writefln("Exception caught !");
    }

    static if (display)
    {
        writefln("s_nConstructed %*Xh.", nDigitsForNObjects, S.s_nConstructed);
        writefln("s_nDestroyed   %*Xh.", nDigitsForNObjects, S.s_nDestroyed);
        writefln("s_nConstructed should be equal to s_nDestroyed.");
        writefln("");
    }

    assert(S.s_nDestroyed == S.s_nConstructed);
}


/**
 * _Array type with deterministic control of memory. The memory allocated
 * for the array is reclaimed as soon as possible; there is no reliance
 * on the garbage collector. `Array` uses `malloc`, `realloc` and `free`
 * for managing its own memory.
 *
 * This means that pointers to elements of an `Array` will become
 * dangling as soon as the element is removed from the `Array`. On the other hand
 * the memory allocated by an `Array` will be scanned by the GC and
 * GC managed objects referenced from an `Array` will be kept alive.
 *
 * Note:
 *
 * When using `Array` with range-based functions like those in `std.algorithm`,
 * `Array` must be sliced to get a range (for example, use `array[].map!`
 * instead of `array.map!`). The container itself is not a range.
 */
struct Array(T)
if (!is(immutable T == immutable bool))
{
    import core.memory : free = pureFree;
    import std.internal.memory : enforceMalloc, enforceRealloc;
    import core.stdc.string : memcpy, memmove, memset;

    import core.memory : GC;

    import std.exception : enforce;
    import std.typecons : RefCounted, RefCountedAutoInitialize;

    // This structure is not copyable.
    private struct Payload
    {
        size_t _capacity;
        T[] _payload;

        this(T[] p) { _capacity = p.length; _payload = p; }

        // Destructor releases array memory
        ~this()
        {
            // Warning: destroy would destroy also class instances.
            // The hasElaborateDestructor protects us here.
            static if (hasElaborateDestructor!T)
                foreach (ref e; _payload)
                    .destroy(e);

            static if (hasIndirections!T)
                GC.removeRange(_payload.ptr);

            free(_payload.ptr);
        }

        this(this) @disable;

        void opAssign(Payload rhs) @disable;

        @property size_t length() const
        {
            return _payload.length;
        }

        @property void length(size_t newLength)
        {
            if (length >= newLength)
            {
                // shorten
                static if (hasElaborateDestructor!T)
                    foreach (ref e; _payload.ptr[newLength .. _payload.length])
                        .destroy(e);

                _payload = _payload.ptr[0 .. newLength];
                return;
            }

            static if (__traits(compiles, { static T _; }))
            {
                import std.algorithm.mutation : initializeAll;

                immutable startEmplace = length;
                reserve(newLength);
                initializeAll(_payload.ptr[startEmplace .. newLength]);
                _payload = _payload.ptr[0 .. newLength];
            }
            else
            {
                assert(0, "Cannot add elements to array because `" ~
                    fullyQualifiedName!T ~ ".this()` is annotated with " ~
                    "`@disable`.");
            }
        }

        @property size_t capacity() const
        {
            return _capacity;
        }

        void reserve(size_t elements)
        {
            if (elements <= capacity) return;
            static if (T.sizeof == 1)
            {
                const sz = elements;
            }
            else
            {
                import core.checkedint : mulu;
                bool overflow;
                const sz = mulu(elements, T.sizeof, overflow);
                if (overflow)
                    assert(false, "Overflow");
            }
            static if (hasIndirections!T)
            {
                /* Because of the transactional nature of this
                 * relative to the garbage collector, ensure no
                 * threading bugs by using malloc/copy/free rather
                 * than realloc.
                 */
                immutable oldLength = length;

                auto newPayloadPtr = cast(T*) enforceMalloc(sz);
                auto newPayload = newPayloadPtr[0 .. oldLength];

                // copy old data over to new array
                memcpy(newPayload.ptr, _payload.ptr, T.sizeof * oldLength);
                // Zero out unused capacity to prevent gc from seeing false pointers
                memset(newPayload.ptr + oldLength,
                        0,
                        (elements - oldLength) * T.sizeof);
                GC.addRange(newPayload.ptr, sz);
                GC.removeRange(_payload.ptr);
                free(_payload.ptr);
                _payload = newPayload;
            }
            else
            {
                // These can't have pointers, so no need to zero unused region
                auto newPayloadPtr = cast(T*) enforceRealloc(_payload.ptr, sz);
                auto newPayload = newPayloadPtr[0 .. length];
                _payload = newPayload;
            }
            _capacity = elements;
        }

        // Insert one item
        size_t insertBack(Elem)(Elem elem)
        if (isImplicitlyConvertible!(Elem, T))
        {
            import core.lifetime : emplace;
            assert(_capacity >= length);
            if (_capacity == length)
            {
                import core.checkedint : addu;

                bool overflow;
                immutable size_t newCapacity = addu(capacity, capacity / 2 + 1, overflow);
                if (overflow)
                    assert(false, "Overflow");

                reserve(newCapacity);
            }
            assert(capacity > length && _payload.ptr,
                "Failed to reserve memory");
            emplace(_payload.ptr + _payload.length, elem);
            _payload = _payload.ptr[0 .. _payload.length + 1];
            return 1;
        }

        // Insert a range of items
        size_t insertBack(Range)(Range r)
        if (isInputRange!Range && isImplicitlyConvertible!(ElementType!Range, T))
        {
            immutable size_t oldLength = length;

            static if (hasLength!Range)
            {
                immutable size_t rLength = r.length;
                reserve(oldLength + rLength);
            }

            size_t result;
            foreach (item; r)
            {
                insertBack(item);
                ++result;
            }

            static if (hasLength!Range)
                assert(result == rLength, "insertBack: range might have changed length");

            assert(length == oldLength + result,
                "Failed to insertBack range");

            return result;
        }
    }
    private alias Data = RefCounted!(Payload, RefCountedAutoInitialize.no);
    private Data _data;

    /**
     * Constructor taking a number of items.
     */
    this(U)(U[] values...)
    if (isImplicitlyConvertible!(U, T))
    {
        // [2021-07-17] Checking to see whether *always* calling ensureInitialized works-around-and/or-is-related-to https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgihttps://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi...
        //if (values.length)
        {
            _data.refCountedStore.ensureInitialized();
            _data.reserve(values.length);
            foreach (ref value; values)
            {
                // We do not simply write "_data.insertBack(value);"
                // because that might perform, on each iteration, a now-redundant check of length vs capacity.
                // Thanks to @dkorpel (https://github.com/dlang/phobos/pull/8162#discussion_r667479090).

                import core.lifetime : emplace;
                emplace(_data._payload.ptr + _data._payload.length, value);

                // We increment the length after each iteration (as opposed to adjusting it just once, after the loop)
                // in order to improve error-safety (in case one of the calls to emplace throws).
                _data._payload = _data._payload.ptr[0 .. _data._payload.length + 1];
            }
        }

        assert(length == values.length);   // We check that all values have been inserted.
        assert(capacity == values.length); // We check that reserve has been called before the loop.
    }

    /**
     * Constructor taking an $(REF_ALTTEXT input range, isInputRange, std,range,primitives)
     */
    this(Range)(Range r)
    if (isInputRange!Range && isImplicitlyConvertible!(ElementType!Range, T) && !is(Range == T[]))
    {
        insertBack(r);
    }

    /**
     * Comparison for equality.
     */
    bool opEquals(const Array rhs) const
    {
        return opEquals(rhs);
    }

    /// ditto
    bool opEquals(ref const Array rhs) const
    {
        if (empty) return rhs.empty;
        if (rhs.empty) return false;
        return _data._payload == rhs._data._payload;
    }

    /**
     *  Defines the array's primary range, which is a random-access range.
     *
     *  `ConstRange` is a variant with `const` elements.
     *  `ImmutableRange` is a variant with `immutable` elements.
     */
    alias Range = RangeT!Array;

    /// ditto
    alias ConstRange = RangeT!(const Array);

    /// ditto
    alias ImmutableRange = RangeT!(immutable Array);

    /**
     * Duplicates the array. The elements themselves are not transitively
     * duplicated.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH length).
     */
    @property Array dup()
    {
        if (!_data.refCountedStore.isInitialized) return this;
        return Array(_data._payload);
    }

    /**
     * Returns: `true` if and only if the array has no elements.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1)
     */
    @property bool empty() const
    {
        return !_data.refCountedStore.isInitialized || _data._payload.empty;
    }

    /**
     * Returns: The number of elements in the array.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1).
     */
    @property size_t length() const
    {
        return _data.refCountedStore.isInitialized ? _data._payload.length : 0;
    }

    /// ditto
    size_t opDollar() const
    {
        return length;
    }

    /**
     * Returns: The maximum number of elements the array can store without
     * reallocating memory and invalidating iterators upon insertion.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1)
     */
    @property size_t capacity()
    {
        return _data.refCountedStore.isInitialized ? _data._capacity : 0;
    }

    /**
     * Returns: the internal representation of the array.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1).
     */

    inout(T)[] data() inout @system
    {
        return _data.refCountedStore.isInitialized ? _data._payload : [];
    }

    /**
     * Ensures sufficient capacity to accommodate `e` _elements.
     * If `e < capacity`, this method does nothing.
     *
     * Postcondition: `capacity >= e`
     *
     * Note: If the capacity is increased, one should assume that all
     * iterators to the elements are invalidated.
     *
     * Complexity: at most $(BIGOH length) if `e > capacity`, otherwise $(BIGOH 1).
     */
    void reserve(size_t elements)
    {
        if (elements > capacity)
        {
            _data.refCountedStore.ensureInitialized();
            _data.reserve(elements);
            assert(capacity == elements); // Might need changing to ">=" if implementation of Payload.reserve is changed.
        }
    }

    /**
     * Returns: A range that iterates over elements of the array in
     * forward order.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1)
     */
    Range opSlice()
    {
        return typeof(return)(this, 0, length);
    }

    ConstRange opSlice() const
    {
        return typeof(return)(this, 0, length);
    }

    ImmutableRange opSlice() immutable
    {
        return typeof(return)(this, 0, length);
    }

    /**
     * Returns: A range that iterates over elements of the array from
     * index `i` up to (excluding) index `j`.
     *
     * Precondition: `i <= j && j <= length`
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1)
     */
    Range opSlice(size_t i, size_t j)
    {
        assert(i <= j && j <= length, "Invalid slice bounds");
        return typeof(return)(this, i, j);
    }

    ConstRange opSlice(size_t i, size_t j) const
    {
        assert(i <= j && j <= length, "Invalid slice bounds");
        return typeof(return)(this, i, j);
    }

    ImmutableRange opSlice(size_t i, size_t j) immutable
    {
        assert(i <= j && j <= length, "Invalid slice bounds");
        return typeof(return)(this, i, j);
    }

    /**
     * Returns: The first element of the array.
     *
     * Precondition: `empty == false`
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1)
     */
    @property ref inout(T) front() inout
    {
        assert(_data.refCountedStore.isInitialized,
            "Cannot get front of empty range");
        return _data._payload[0];
    }

    /**
     * Returns: The last element of the array.
     *
     * Precondition: `empty == false`
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1)
     */
    @property ref inout(T) back() inout
    {
        assert(_data.refCountedStore.isInitialized,
            "Cannot get back of empty range");
        return _data._payload[$ - 1];
    }

    /**
     * Returns: The element or a reference to the element at the specified index.
     *
     * Precondition: `i < length`
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1)
     */
    ref inout(T) opIndex(size_t i) inout
    {
        assert(_data.refCountedStore.isInitialized,
            "Cannot index empty range");
        return _data._payload[i];
    }

    /**
     * Slicing operators executing the specified operation on the entire slice.
     *
     * Precondition: `i < j && j < length`
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH slice.length)
     */
    void opSliceAssign(T value)
    {
        if (!_data.refCountedStore.isInitialized) return;
        _data._payload[] = value;
    }

    /// ditto
    void opSliceAssign(T value, size_t i, size_t j)
    {
        auto slice = _data.refCountedStore.isInitialized ?
            _data._payload :
            T[].init;
        slice[i .. j] = value;
    }

    /// ditto
    void opSliceUnary(string op)()
    if (op == "++" || op == "--")
    {
        if (!_data.refCountedStore.isInitialized) return;
        mixin(op~"_data._payload[];");
    }

    /// ditto
    void opSliceUnary(string op)(size_t i, size_t j)
    if (op == "++" || op == "--")
    {
        auto slice = _data.refCountedStore.isInitialized ? _data._payload : T[].init;
        mixin(op~"slice[i .. j];");
    }

    /// ditto
    void opSliceOpAssign(string op)(T value)
    {
        if (!_data.refCountedStore.isInitialized) return;
        mixin("_data._payload[] "~op~"= value;");
    }

    /// ditto
    void opSliceOpAssign(string op)(T value, size_t i, size_t j)
    {
        auto slice = _data.refCountedStore.isInitialized ? _data._payload : T[].init;
        mixin("slice[i .. j] "~op~"= value;");
    }

    private enum hasSliceWithLength(T) = is(typeof({ T t = T.init; t[].length; }));

    /**
     * Returns: A new array which is a concatenation of `this` and its argument.
     *
     * Complexity:
     * $(BIGOH length + m), where `m` is the number of elements in `stuff`.
     */
    Array opBinary(string op, Stuff)(Stuff stuff)
    if (op == "~")
    {
        Array result;

        static if (hasLength!Stuff || isNarrowString!Stuff)
            result.reserve(length + stuff.length);
        else static if (hasSliceWithLength!Stuff)
            result.reserve(length + stuff[].length);
        else static if (isImplicitlyConvertible!(Stuff, T))
            result.reserve(length + 1);

        result.insertBack(this[]);
        result ~= stuff;
        return result;
    }

    /**
     * Forwards to `insertBack`.
     */
    void opOpAssign(string op, Stuff)(auto ref Stuff stuff)
    if (op == "~")
    {
        static if (is(typeof(stuff[])) && isImplicitlyConvertible!(typeof(stuff[0]), T))
        {
            insertBack(stuff[]);
        }
        else
        {
            insertBack(stuff);
        }
    }

    /**
     * Removes all the elements from the array and releases allocated memory.
     *
     * Postcondition: `empty == true && capacity == 0`
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH length)
     */
    void clear()
    {
        _data = Data.init;
    }

    /**
     * Sets the number of elements in the array to `newLength`. If `newLength`
     * is greater than `length`, the new elements are added to the end of the
     * array and initialized with `T.init`. If `T` is a `struct` whose default
     * constructor is annotated with `@disable`, `newLength` must be lower than
     * or equal to `length`.
     *
     * Complexity:
     * Guaranteed $(BIGOH abs(length - newLength)) if `capacity >= newLength`.
     * If `capacity < newLength` the worst case is $(BIGOH newLength).
     *
     * Precondition: `__traits(compiles, { static T _; }) || newLength <= length`
     *
     * Postcondition: `length == newLength`
     */
    @property void length(size_t newLength)
    {
        _data.refCountedStore.ensureInitialized();
        _data.length = newLength;
    }

    /**
     * Removes the last element from the array and returns it.
     * Both stable and non-stable versions behave the same and guarantee
     * that ranges iterating over the array are never invalidated.
     *
     * Precondition: `empty == false`
     *
     * Returns: The element removed.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1).
     *
     * Throws: `Exception` if the array is empty.
     */
    T removeAny()
    {
        auto result = back;
        removeBack();
        return result;
    }

    /// ditto
    alias stableRemoveAny = removeAny;

    /**
     * Inserts the specified elements at the back of the array. `stuff` can be
     * a value convertible to `T` or a range of objects convertible to `T`.
     *
     * Returns: The number of elements inserted.
     *
     * Complexity:
     * $(BIGOH length + m) if reallocation takes place, otherwise $(BIGOH m),
     * where `m` is the number of elements in `stuff`.
     */
    size_t insertBack(Stuff)(Stuff stuff)
    if (isImplicitlyConvertible!(Stuff, T) ||
            isInputRange!Stuff && isImplicitlyConvertible!(ElementType!Stuff, T))
    {
        _data.refCountedStore.ensureInitialized();
        return _data.insertBack(stuff);
    }

    /// ditto
    alias insert = insertBack;

    /**
     * Removes the value from the back of the array. Both stable and non-stable
     * versions behave the same and guarantee that ranges iterating over the
     * array are never invalidated.
     *
     * Precondition: `empty == false`
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1).
     *
     * Throws: `Exception` if the array is empty.
     */
    void removeBack()
    {
        enforce(!empty);
        static if (hasElaborateDestructor!T)
            .destroy(_data._payload[$ - 1]);

        _data._payload = _data._payload[0 .. $ - 1];
    }

    /// ditto
    alias stableRemoveBack = removeBack;

    /**
     * Removes `howMany` values from the back of the array.
     * Unlike the unparameterized versions above, these functions
     * do not throw if they could not remove `howMany` elements. Instead,
     * if `howMany > n`, all elements are removed. The returned value is
     * the effective number of elements removed. Both stable and non-stable
     * versions behave the same and guarantee that ranges iterating over
     * the array are never invalidated.
     *
     * Returns: The number of elements removed.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH howMany).
     */
    size_t removeBack(size_t howMany)
    {
        if (howMany > length) howMany = length;
        static if (hasElaborateDestructor!T)
            foreach (ref e; _data._payload[$ - howMany .. $])
                .destroy(e);

        _data._payload = _data._payload[0 .. $ - howMany];
        return howMany;
    }

    /// ditto
    alias stableRemoveBack = removeBack;

    /**
     * Inserts `stuff` before, after, or instead range `r`, which must
     * be a valid range previously extracted from this array. `stuff`
     * can be a value convertible to `T` or a range of objects convertible
     * to `T`. Both stable and non-stable version behave the same and
     * guarantee that ranges iterating over the array are never invalidated.
     *
     * Returns: The number of values inserted.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH length + m), where `m` is the length of `stuff`.
     *
     * Throws: `Exception` if `r` is not a range extracted from this array.
     */
    size_t insertBefore(Stuff)(Range r, Stuff stuff)
    if (isImplicitlyConvertible!(Stuff, T))
    {
        import core.lifetime : emplace;
        enforce(r._outer._data is _data && r._a <= length);
        reserve(length + 1);
        assert(_data.refCountedStore.isInitialized,
            "Failed to allocate capacity to insertBefore");
        // Move elements over by one slot
        memmove(_data._payload.ptr + r._a + 1,
                _data._payload.ptr + r._a,
                T.sizeof * (length - r._a));
        emplace(_data._payload.ptr + r._a, stuff);
        _data._payload = _data._payload.ptr[0 .. _data._payload.length + 1];
        return 1;
    }

    /// ditto
    size_t insertBefore(Stuff)(Range r, Stuff stuff)
    if (isInputRange!Stuff && isImplicitlyConvertible!(ElementType!Stuff, T))
    {
        import core.lifetime : emplace;
        enforce(r._outer._data is _data && r._a <= length);
        static if (isForwardRange!Stuff)
        {
            // Can find the length in advance
            auto extra = walkLength(stuff);
            if (!extra) return 0;
            reserve(length + extra);
            assert(_data.refCountedStore.isInitialized,
                "Failed to allocate capacity to insertBefore");
            // Move elements over by extra slots
            memmove(_data._payload.ptr + r._a + extra,
                    _data._payload.ptr + r._a,
                    T.sizeof * (length - r._a));
            foreach (p; _data._payload.ptr + r._a ..
                    _data._payload.ptr + r._a + extra)
            {
                emplace(p, stuff.front);
                stuff.popFront();
            }
            _data._payload =
                _data._payload.ptr[0 .. _data._payload.length + extra];
            return extra;
        }
        else
        {
            import std.algorithm.mutation : bringToFront;
            enforce(_data);
            immutable offset = r._a;
            enforce(offset <= length);
            auto result = insertBack(stuff);
            bringToFront(this[offset .. length - result],
                    this[length - result .. length]);
            return result;
        }
    }

    /// ditto
    alias stableInsertBefore = insertBefore;

    /// ditto
    size_t insertAfter(Stuff)(Range r, Stuff stuff)
    if (isImplicitlyConvertible!(Stuff, T) ||
            isInputRange!Stuff && isImplicitlyConvertible!(ElementType!Stuff, T))
    {
        import std.algorithm.mutation : bringToFront;
        enforce(r._outer._data is _data);
        // TODO: optimize
        immutable offset = r._b;
        enforce(offset <= length);
        auto result = insertBack(stuff);
        bringToFront(this[offset .. length - result],
                this[length - result .. length]);
        return result;
    }

    /// ditto
    size_t replace(Stuff)(Range r, Stuff stuff)
    if (isInputRange!Stuff && isImplicitlyConvertible!(ElementType!Stuff, T))
    {
        enforce(r._outer._data is _data);
        size_t result;
        for (; !stuff.empty; stuff.popFront())
        {
            if (r.empty)
            {
                // insert the rest
                return result + insertBefore(r, stuff);
            }
            r.front = stuff.front;
            r.popFront();
            ++result;
        }
        // Remove remaining stuff in r
        linearRemove(r);
        return result;
    }

    /// ditto
    size_t replace(Stuff)(Range r, Stuff stuff)
    if (isImplicitlyConvertible!(Stuff, T))
    {
        enforce(r._outer._data is _data);
        if (r.empty)
        {
            insertBefore(r, stuff);
        }
        else
        {
            r.front = stuff;
            r.popFront();
            linearRemove(r);
        }
        return 1;
    }

    /**
     * Removes all elements belonging to `r`, which must be a range
     * obtained originally from this array.
     *
     * Returns: A range spanning the remaining elements in the array that
     * initially were right after `r`.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH length)
     *
     * Throws: `Exception` if `r` is not a valid range extracted from this array.
     */
    Range linearRemove(Range r)
    {
        import std.algorithm.mutation : copy;

        enforce(r._outer._data is _data);
        enforce(_data.refCountedStore.isInitialized);
        enforce(r._a <= r._b && r._b <= length);
        immutable offset1 = r._a;
        immutable offset2 = r._b;
        immutable tailLength = length - offset2;
        // Use copy here, not a[] = b[] because the ranges may overlap
        copy(this[offset2 .. length], this[offset1 .. offset1 + tailLength]);
        length = offset1 + tailLength;
        return this[length - tailLength .. length];
    }
}

@system unittest
{
    Array!int a;
    assert(a.empty);
}

@system unittest
{
    Array!int a;
    a.length = 10;
    assert(a.length == 10);
    assert(a.capacity >= a.length);
}

@system unittest
{
    struct Dumb { int x = 5; }
    Array!Dumb a;
    a.length = 10;
    assert(a.length == 10);
    assert(a.capacity >= a.length);
    immutable cap = a.capacity;
    foreach (ref e; a)
        e.x = 10;
    a.length = 5;
    assert(a.length == 5);
    // do not realloc if length decreases
    assert(a.capacity == cap);
    foreach (ref e; a)
        assert(e.x == 10);

    a.length = 8;
    assert(a.length == 8);
    // do not realloc if capacity sufficient
    assert(a.capacity == cap);
    assert(Dumb.init.x == 5);
    foreach (i; 0 .. 5)
        assert(a[i].x == 10);
    foreach (i; 5 .. a.length)
        assert(a[i].x == Dumb.init.x);

    // realloc required, check if values properly copied
    a[] = Dumb(1);
    a.length = 20;
    assert(a.capacity >= 20);
    foreach (i; 0 .. 8)
        assert(a[i].x == 1);
    foreach (i; 8 .. a.length)
        assert(a[i].x == Dumb.init.x);

    // check if overlapping elements properly initialized
    a.length = 1;
    a.length = 20;
    assert(a[0].x == 1);
    foreach (e; a[1 .. $])
        assert(e.x == Dumb.init.x);
}

@system unittest
{
    Array!int a = Array!int(1, 2, 3);
    //a._data._refCountedDebug = true;
    auto b = a.dup;
    assert(b == Array!int(1, 2, 3));
    b.front = 42;
    assert(b == Array!int(42, 2, 3));
    assert(a == Array!int(1, 2, 3));
}

@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!int(1, 2, 3);
    assert(a.length == 3);
}

@system unittest
{
    const Array!int a = [1, 2];

    assert(a[0] == 1);
    assert(a.front == 1);
    assert(a.back == 2);

    static assert(!__traits(compiles, { a[0] = 1; }));
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, { a.front = 1; }));
    static assert(!__traits(compiles, { a.back = 1; }));

    auto r = a[];
    size_t i;
    foreach (e; r)
    {
        assert(e == i + 1);
        i++;
    }
}

@safe unittest
{
    // https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=13621
    import std.container : Array, BinaryHeap;
    alias Heap = BinaryHeap!(Array!int);
}

@system unittest
{
    // https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=18800
    static struct S { void* p; }
    Array!S a;
    a.length = 10;
}

@system unittest
{
    Array!int a;
    a.reserve(1000);
    assert(a.length == 0);
    assert(a.empty);
    assert(a.capacity >= 1000);
    auto p = a._data._payload.ptr;
    foreach (i; 0 .. 1000)
    {
        a.insertBack(i);
    }
    assert(p == a._data._payload.ptr);
}

@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!int(1, 2, 3);
    a[1] *= 42;
    assert(a[1] == 84);
}

@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!int(1, 2, 3);
    auto b = Array!int(11, 12, 13);
    auto c = a ~ b;
    assert(c == Array!int(1, 2, 3, 11, 12, 13));
    assert(a ~ b[] == Array!int(1, 2, 3, 11, 12, 13));
    assert(a ~ [4,5] == Array!int(1,2,3,4,5));
}

@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!int(1, 2, 3);
    auto b = Array!int(11, 12, 13);
    a ~= b;
    assert(a == Array!int(1, 2, 3, 11, 12, 13));
}

@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!int(1, 2, 3, 4);
    assert(a.removeAny() == 4);
    assert(a == Array!int(1, 2, 3));
}

@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!int(1, 2, 3, 4, 5);
    auto r = a[2 .. a.length];
    assert(a.insertBefore(r, 42) == 1);
    assert(a == Array!int(1, 2, 42, 3, 4, 5));
    r = a[2 .. 2];
    assert(a.insertBefore(r, [8, 9]) == 2);
    assert(a == Array!int(1, 2, 8, 9, 42, 3, 4, 5));
}

@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!int(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8);
    a.linearRemove(a[4 .. 6]);
    assert(a == Array!int(0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8));
}

// Give the Range object some testing.
@system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.range : retro;
    auto a = Array!int(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)[];
    auto b = Array!int(6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0)[];
    alias A = typeof(a);

    static assert(isRandomAccessRange!A);
    static assert(hasSlicing!A);
    static assert(hasAssignableElements!A);
    static assert(hasMobileElements!A);

    assert(equal(retro(b), a));
    assert(a.length == 7);
    assert(equal(a[1 .. 4], [1, 2, 3]));
}

// https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=5920
@system unittest
{
    struct structBug5920
    {
        int order;
        uint* pDestructionMask;
        ~this()
        {
            if (pDestructionMask)
                *pDestructionMask += 1 << order;
        }
    }

    alias S = structBug5920;
    uint dMask;

    auto arr = Array!S(cast(S[])[]);
    foreach (i; 0 .. 8)
        arr.insertBack(S(i, &dMask));
    // don't check dMask now as S may be copied multiple times (it's ok?)
    {
        assert(arr.length == 8);
        dMask = 0;
        arr.length = 6;
        assert(arr.length == 6);    // make sure shrinking calls the d'tor
        assert(dMask == 0b1100_0000);
        arr.removeBack();
        assert(arr.length == 5);    // make sure removeBack() calls the d'tor
        assert(dMask == 0b1110_0000);
        arr.removeBack(3);
        assert(arr.length == 2);    // ditto
        assert(dMask == 0b1111_1100);
        arr.clear();
        assert(arr.length == 0);    // make sure clear() calls the d'tor
        assert(dMask == 0b1111_1111);
    }
    assert(dMask == 0b1111_1111);   // make sure the d'tor is called once only.
}

// Test for https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=5792
// (mainly just to check if this piece of code is compilable)
@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!(int[])([[1,2],[3,4]]);
    a.reserve(4);
    assert(a.capacity >= 4);
    assert(a.length == 2);
    assert(a[0] == [1,2]);
    assert(a[1] == [3,4]);
    a.reserve(16);
    assert(a.capacity >= 16);
    assert(a.length == 2);
    assert(a[0] == [1,2]);
    assert(a[1] == [3,4]);
}

// test replace!Stuff with range Stuff
@system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    auto a = Array!int([1, 42, 5]);
    a.replace(a[1 .. 2], [2, 3, 4]);
    assert(equal(a[], [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]));
}

// test insertBefore and replace with empty Arrays
@system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    auto a = Array!int();
    a.insertBefore(a[], 1);
    assert(equal(a[], [1]));
}
@system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    auto a = Array!int();
    a.insertBefore(a[], [1, 2]);
    assert(equal(a[], [1, 2]));
}
@system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    auto a = Array!int();
    a.replace(a[], [1, 2]);
    assert(equal(a[], [1, 2]));
}
@system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    auto a = Array!int();
    a.replace(a[], 1);
    assert(equal(a[], [1]));
}
// make sure that Array instances refuse ranges that don't belong to them
@system unittest
{
    import std.exception : assertThrown;

    Array!int a = [1, 2, 3];
    auto r = a.dup[];
    assertThrown(a.insertBefore(r, 42));
    assertThrown(a.insertBefore(r, [42]));
    assertThrown(a.insertAfter(r, 42));
    assertThrown(a.replace(r, 42));
    assertThrown(a.replace(r, [42]));
    assertThrown(a.linearRemove(r));
}
@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!int([1, 1]);
    a[1]  = 0; //Check Array.opIndexAssign
    assert(a[1] == 0);
    a[1] += 1; //Check Array.opIndexOpAssign
    assert(a[1] == 1);

    //Check Array.opIndexUnary
    ++a[0];
    //a[0]++ //op++ doesn't return, so this shouldn't work, even with 5044 fixed
    assert(a[0] == 2);
    assert(+a[0] == +2);
    assert(-a[0] == -2);
    assert(~a[0] == ~2);

    auto r = a[];
    r[1]  = 0; //Check Array.Range.opIndexAssign
    assert(r[1] == 0);
    r[1] += 1; //Check Array.Range.opIndexOpAssign
    assert(r[1] == 1);

    //Check Array.Range.opIndexUnary
    ++r[0];
    //r[0]++ //op++ doesn't return, so this shouldn't work, even with 5044 fixed
    assert(r[0] == 3);
    assert(+r[0] == +3);
    assert(-r[0] == -3);
    assert(~r[0] == ~3);
}

@system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    //Test "array-wide" operations
    auto a = Array!int([0, 1, 2]); //Array
    a[] += 5;
    assert(a[].equal([5, 6, 7]));
    ++a[];
    assert(a[].equal([6, 7, 8]));
    a[1 .. 3] *= 5;
    assert(a[].equal([6, 35, 40]));
    a[0 .. 2] = 0;
    assert(a[].equal([0, 0, 40]));

    //Test empty array
    auto a2 = Array!int.init;
    ++a2[];
    ++a2[0 .. 0];
    a2[] = 0;
    a2[0 .. 0] = 0;
    a2[] += 0;
    a2[0 .. 0] += 0;

    //Test "range-wide" operations
    auto r = Array!int([0, 1, 2])[]; //Array.Range
    r[] += 5;
    assert(r.equal([5, 6, 7]));
    ++r[];
    assert(r.equal([6, 7, 8]));
    r[1 .. 3] *= 5;
    assert(r.equal([6, 35, 40]));
    r[0 .. 2] = 0;
    assert(r.equal([0, 0, 40]));

    //Test empty Range
    auto r2 = Array!int.init[];
    ++r2[];
    ++r2[0 .. 0];
    r2[] = 0;
    r2[0 .. 0] = 0;
    r2[] += 0;
    r2[0 .. 0] += 0;
}

// Test issue 11194
@system unittest
{
    static struct S {
        int i = 1337;
        void* p;
        this(this) { assert(i == 1337); }
        ~this() { assert(i == 1337); }
    }
    Array!S arr;
    S s;
    arr ~= s;
    arr ~= s;
}

// https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=11459
@safe unittest
{
    static struct S
    {
        bool b;
        alias b this;
    }
    alias A = Array!S;
    alias B = Array!(shared bool);
}

// https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=11884
@system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.iteration : filter;
    auto a = Array!int([1, 2, 2].filter!"true"());
}

// https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=8282
@safe unittest
{
    auto arr = new Array!int;
}

// https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=6998
@system unittest
{
    static int i = 0;
    class C
    {
        int dummy = 1;
        this(){++i;}
        ~this(){--i;}
    }

    assert(i == 0);
    auto c = new C();
    assert(i == 1);

    //scope
    {
        auto arr = Array!C(c);
        assert(i == 1);
    }
    //Array should not have destroyed the class instance
    assert(i == 1);

    //Just to make sure the GC doesn't collect before the above test.
    assert(c.dummy == 1);
}

//https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=6998 (2)
@system unittest
{
    static class C {int i;}
    auto c = new C;
    c.i = 42;
    Array!C a;
    a ~= c;
    a.clear;
    assert(c.i == 42); //fails
}

@safe unittest
{
    static assert(is(Array!int.Range));
    static assert(is(Array!int.ConstRange));
}

@system unittest // const/immutable Array and Ranges
{
    static void test(A, R, E, S)()
    {
        A a;
        R r = a[];
        assert(r.empty);
        assert(r.length == 0);
        static assert(is(typeof(r.front) == E));
        static assert(is(typeof(r.back) == E));
        static assert(is(typeof(r[0]) == E));
        static assert(is(typeof(r[]) == S));
        static assert(is(typeof(r[0 .. 0]) == S));
    }

    alias A = Array!int;

    test!(A, A.Range, int, A.Range);
    test!(A, const A.Range, const int, A.ConstRange);

    test!(const A, A.ConstRange, const int, A.ConstRange);
    test!(const A, const A.ConstRange, const int, A.ConstRange);

    test!(immutable A, A.ImmutableRange, immutable int, A.ImmutableRange);
    test!(immutable A, const A.ImmutableRange, immutable int, A.ImmutableRange);
    test!(immutable A, immutable A.ImmutableRange, immutable int,
        A.ImmutableRange);
}

// ensure @nogc
@nogc @system unittest
{
    Array!int ai;
    ai ~= 1;
    assert(ai.front == 1);

    ai.reserve(10);
    assert(ai.capacity == 10);

    static immutable arr = [1, 2, 3];
    ai.insertBack(arr);
}

/*
 * typeof may give wrong result in case of classes defining `opCall` operator
 * https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=20589
 *
 * destructor std.container.array.Array!(MyClass).Array.~this is @system
 * so the unittest is @system too
 */
@system unittest
{
    class MyClass
    {
        T opCall(T)(T p)
        {
            return p;
        }
    }

    Array!MyClass arr;
}

@system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    auto a = Array!int([1,2,3,4,5]);
    assert(a.length == 5);

    assert(a.insertAfter(a[0 .. 5], [7, 8]) == 2);
    assert(equal(a[], [1,2,3,4,5,7,8]));

    assert(a.insertAfter(a[0 .. 5], 6) == 1);
    assert(equal(a[], [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8]));
}

// https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=22105
@system unittest
{
    import core.exception : AssertError;
    import std.exception : assertThrown, assertNotThrown;

    struct NoDefaultCtor
    {
        int i;
        @disable this();
        this(int j) { i = j; }
    }

    auto array = Array!NoDefaultCtor([NoDefaultCtor(1), NoDefaultCtor(2)]);
    assertNotThrown!AssertError(array.length = 1);
    assertThrown!AssertError(array.length = 5);
}

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
// Array!bool
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

/**
 * _Array specialized for `bool`. Packs together values efficiently by
 * allocating one bit per element.
 */
struct Array(T)
if (is(immutable T == immutable bool))
{
    import std.exception : enforce;
    import std.typecons : RefCounted, RefCountedAutoInitialize;

    static immutable uint bitsPerWord = size_t.sizeof * 8;
    private static struct Data
    {
        Array!size_t.Payload _backend;
        size_t _length;
    }
    private RefCounted!(Data, RefCountedAutoInitialize.no) _store;

    private @property ref size_t[] data()
    {
        assert(_store.refCountedStore.isInitialized,
            "Cannot get data of uninitialized Array");
        return _store._backend._payload;
    }

    /**
     * Defines the array's primary range.
     */
    struct Range
    {
        private Array _outer;
        private size_t _a, _b;
        /// Range primitives
        @property Range save()
        {
            version (bug4437)
            {
                return this;
            }
            else
            {
                auto copy = this;
                return copy;
            }
        }
        /// Ditto
        @property bool empty()
        {
            return _a >= _b || _outer.length < _b;
        }
        /// Ditto
        @property T front()
        {
            enforce(!empty, "Attempting to access the front of an empty Array");
            return _outer[_a];
        }
        /// Ditto
        @property void front(bool value)
        {
            enforce(!empty, "Attempting to set the front of an empty Array");
            _outer[_a] = value;
        }
        /// Ditto
        T moveFront()
        {
            enforce(!empty, "Attempting to move the front of an empty Array");
            return _outer.moveAt(_a);
        }
        /// Ditto
        void popFront()
        {
            enforce(!empty, "Attempting to popFront an empty Array");
            ++_a;
        }
        /// Ditto
        @property T back()
        {
            enforce(!empty, "Attempting to access the back of an empty Array");
            return _outer[_b - 1];
        }
        /// Ditto
        @property void back(bool value)
        {
            enforce(!empty, "Attempting to set the back of an empty Array");
            _outer[_b - 1] = value;
        }
        /// Ditto
        T moveBack()
        {
            enforce(!empty, "Attempting to move the back of an empty Array");
            return _outer.moveAt(_b - 1);
        }
        /// Ditto
        void popBack()
        {
            enforce(!empty, "Attempting to popBack an empty Array");
            --_b;
        }
        /// Ditto
        T opIndex(size_t i)
        {
            return _outer[_a + i];
        }
        /// Ditto
        void opIndexAssign(T value, size_t i)
        {
            _outer[_a + i] = value;
        }
        /// Ditto
        T moveAt(size_t i)
        {
            return _outer.moveAt(_a + i);
        }
        /// Ditto
        @property size_t length() const
        {
            assert(_a <= _b, "Invalid bounds");
            return _b - _a;
        }
        alias opDollar = length;
        /// ditto
        Range opSlice(size_t low, size_t high)
        {
            // Note: indexes start at 0, which is equivalent to _a
            assert(
                low <= high && high <= (_b - _a),
                "Using out of bounds indexes on an Array"
            );
            return Range(_outer, _a + low, _a + high);
        }
    }

    /**
     * Constructor taking a number of items.
     */
    this(U)(U[] values...)
    if (isImplicitlyConvertible!(U, T))
    {
        reserve(values.length);
        foreach (i, v; values)
        {
            auto rem = i % bitsPerWord;
            if (rem)
            {
                // Fits within the current array
                if (v)
                {
                    data[$ - 1] |= (cast(size_t) 1 << rem);
                }
                else
                {
                    data[$ - 1] &= ~(cast(size_t) 1 << rem);
                }
            }
            else
            {
                // Need to add more data
                _store._backend.insertBack(v);
            }
        }
        _store._length = values.length;
    }

    /**
     * Constructor taking an $(REF_ALTTEXT input range, isInputRange, std,range,primitives)
     */
    this(Range)(Range r)
    if (isInputRange!Range && isImplicitlyConvertible!(ElementType!Range, T) && !is(Range == T[]))
    {
        insertBack(r);
    }

    /**
     * Property returning `true` if and only if the array has
     * no elements.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1)
     */
    @property bool empty()
    {
        return !length;
    }

    /**
     * Returns: A duplicate of the array.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH length).
     */
    @property Array dup()
    {
        Array result;
        result.insertBack(this[]);
        return result;
    }

    /**
     * Returns the number of elements in the array.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1).
     */
    @property size_t length() const
    {
        return _store.refCountedStore.isInitialized ? _store._length : 0;
    }
    alias opDollar = length;

    /**
     * Returns: The maximum number of elements the array can store without
     * reallocating memory and invalidating iterators upon insertion.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1).
     */
    @property size_t capacity()
    {
        return _store.refCountedStore.isInitialized
            ? cast(size_t) bitsPerWord * _store._backend.capacity
            : 0;
    }

    /**
     * Ensures sufficient capacity to accommodate `e` _elements.
     * If `e < capacity`, this method does nothing.
     *
     * Postcondition: `capacity >= e`
     *
     * Note: If the capacity is increased, one should assume that all
     * iterators to the elements are invalidated.
     *
     * Complexity: at most $(BIGOH length) if `e > capacity`, otherwise $(BIGOH 1).
     */
    void reserve(size_t e)
    {
        import std.conv : to;
        _store.refCountedStore.ensureInitialized();
        _store._backend.reserve(to!size_t((e + bitsPerWord - 1) / bitsPerWord));
    }

    /**
     * Returns: A range that iterates over all elements of the array in forward order.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1)
     */
    Range opSlice()
    {
        return Range(this, 0, length);
    }


    /**
     * Returns: A range that iterates the array between two specified positions.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1)
     */
    Range opSlice(size_t a, size_t b)
    {
        enforce(a <= b && b <= length);
        return Range(this, a, b);
    }

    /**
     * Returns: The first element of the array.
     *
     * Precondition: `empty == false`
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1)
     *
     * Throws: `Exception` if the array is empty.
     */
    @property bool front()
    {
        enforce(!empty);
        return data.ptr[0] & 1;
    }

    /// Ditto
    @property void front(bool value)
    {
        enforce(!empty);
        if (value) data.ptr[0] |= 1;
        else data.ptr[0] &= ~cast(size_t) 1;
    }

    /**
     * Returns: The last element of the array.
     *
     * Precondition: `empty == false`
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1)
     *
     * Throws: `Exception` if the array is empty.
     */
    @property bool back()
    {
        enforce(!empty);
        return cast(bool)(data.back & (cast(size_t) 1 << ((_store._length - 1) % bitsPerWord)));
    }

    /// Ditto
    @property void back(bool value)
    {
        enforce(!empty);
        if (value)
        {
            data.back |= (cast(size_t) 1 << ((_store._length - 1) % bitsPerWord));
        }
        else
        {
            data.back &=
                ~(cast(size_t) 1 << ((_store._length - 1) % bitsPerWord));
        }
    }

    /**
     * Indexing operators yielding or modifyng the value at the specified index.
     *
     * Precondition: `i < length`
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1)
     */
    bool opIndex(size_t i)
    {
        auto div = cast(size_t) (i / bitsPerWord);
        auto rem = i % bitsPerWord;
        enforce(div < data.length);
        return cast(bool)(data.ptr[div] & (cast(size_t) 1 << rem));
    }

    /// ditto
    void opIndexAssign(bool value, size_t i)
    {
        auto div = cast(size_t) (i / bitsPerWord);
        auto rem = i % bitsPerWord;
        enforce(div < data.length);
        if (value) data.ptr[div] |= (cast(size_t) 1 << rem);
        else data.ptr[div] &= ~(cast(size_t) 1 << rem);
    }

    /// ditto
    void opIndexOpAssign(string op)(bool value, size_t i)
    {
        auto div = cast(size_t) (i / bitsPerWord);
        auto rem = i % bitsPerWord;
        enforce(div < data.length);
        auto oldValue = cast(bool) (data.ptr[div] & (cast(size_t) 1 << rem));
        // Do the deed
        auto newValue = mixin("oldValue "~op~" value");
        // Write back the value
        if (newValue != oldValue)
        {
            if (newValue) data.ptr[div] |= (cast(size_t) 1 << rem);
            else data.ptr[div] &= ~(cast(size_t) 1 << rem);
        }
    }

    /// Ditto
    T moveAt(size_t i)
    {
        return this[i];
    }

    /**
     * Returns: A new array which is a concatenation of `this` and its argument.
     *
     * Complexity:
     * $(BIGOH length + m), where `m` is the number of elements in `stuff`.
     */
    Array!bool opBinary(string op, Stuff)(Stuff rhs)
    if (op == "~")
    {
        Array!bool result;

        static if (hasLength!Stuff)
            result.reserve(length + rhs.length);
        else static if (is(typeof(rhs[])) && hasLength!(typeof(rhs[])))
            result.reserve(length + rhs[].length);
        else static if (isImplicitlyConvertible!(Stuff, bool))
            result.reserve(length + 1);

        result.insertBack(this[]);
        result ~= rhs;
        return result;
    }

    /**
     * Forwards to `insertBack`.
     */
    Array!bool opOpAssign(string op, Stuff)(Stuff stuff)
    if (op == "~")
    {
        static if (is(typeof(stuff[]))) insertBack(stuff[]);
        else insertBack(stuff);
        return this;
    }

    /**
     * Removes all the elements from the array and releases allocated memory.
     *
     * Postcondition: `empty == true && capacity == 0`
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH length)
     */
    void clear()
    {
        this = Array();
    }

    /**
     * Sets the number of elements in the array to `newLength`. If `newLength`
     * is greater than `length`, the new elements are added to the end of the
     * array and initialized with `false`.
     *
     * Complexity:
     * Guaranteed $(BIGOH abs(length - newLength)) if `capacity >= newLength`.
     * If `capacity < newLength` the worst case is $(BIGOH newLength).
     *
     * Postcondition: `length == newLength`
     */
    @property void length(size_t newLength)
    {
        import std.conv : to;
        _store.refCountedStore.ensureInitialized();
        auto newDataLength =
            to!size_t((newLength + bitsPerWord - 1) / bitsPerWord);
        _store._backend.length = newDataLength;
        _store._length = newLength;
    }

    /**
     * Removes the last element from the array and returns it.
     * Both stable and non-stable versions behave the same and guarantee
     * that ranges iterating over the array are never invalidated.
     *
     * Precondition: `empty == false`
     *
     * Returns: The element removed.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1).
     *
     * Throws: `Exception` if the array is empty.
     */
    T removeAny()
    {
        auto result = back;
        removeBack();
        return result;
    }

    /// ditto
    alias stableRemoveAny = removeAny;

    /**
     * Inserts the specified elements at the back of the array. `stuff` can be
     * a value convertible to `bool` or a range of objects convertible to `bool`.
     *
     * Returns: The number of elements inserted.
     *
     * Complexity:
     * $(BIGOH length + m) if reallocation takes place, otherwise $(BIGOH m),
     * where `m` is the number of elements in `stuff`.
     */
    size_t insertBack(Stuff)(Stuff stuff)
    if (is(Stuff : bool))
    {
        _store.refCountedStore.ensureInitialized();
        auto rem = _store._length % bitsPerWord;
        if (rem)
        {
            // Fits within the current array
            if (stuff)
            {
                data[$ - 1] |= (cast(size_t) 1 << rem);
            }
            else
            {
                data[$ - 1] &= ~(cast(size_t) 1 << rem);
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // Need to add more data
            _store._backend.insertBack(stuff);
        }
        ++_store._length;
        return 1;
    }

    /// ditto
    size_t insertBack(Stuff)(Stuff stuff)
    if (isInputRange!Stuff && is(ElementType!Stuff : bool))
    {
        size_t result;
        static if (hasLength!Stuff)
            result = stuff.length;

        for (; !stuff.empty; stuff.popFront())
        {
            insertBack(stuff.front);
            static if (!hasLength!Stuff) ++result;
        }

        return result;
    }

    /// ditto
    alias stableInsertBack = insertBack;

    /// ditto
    alias insert = insertBack;

    /// ditto
    alias stableInsert = insertBack;

    /// ditto
    alias linearInsert = insertBack;

    /// ditto
    alias stableLinearInsert = insertBack;

    /**
     * Removes the value from the back of the array. Both stable and non-stable
     * versions behave the same and guarantee that ranges iterating over the
     * array are never invalidated.
     *
     * Precondition: `empty == false`
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH 1).
     *
     * Throws: `Exception` if the array is empty.
     */
    void removeBack()
    {
        enforce(_store._length);
        if (_store._length % bitsPerWord)
        {
            // Cool, just decrease the length
            --_store._length;
        }
        else
        {
            // Reduce the allocated space
            --_store._length;
            _store._backend.length = _store._backend.length - 1;
        }
    }

    /// ditto
    alias stableRemoveBack = removeBack;

    /**
     * Removes `howMany` values from the back of the array. Unlike the
     * unparameterized versions above, these functions do not throw if
     * they could not remove `howMany` elements. Instead, if `howMany > n`,
     * all elements are removed. The returned value is the effective number
     * of elements removed. Both stable and non-stable versions behave the same
     * and guarantee that ranges iterating over the array are never invalidated.
     *
     * Returns: The number of elements removed.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH howMany).
     */
    size_t removeBack(size_t howMany)
    {
        if (howMany >= length)
        {
            howMany = length;
            clear();
        }
        else
        {
            length = length - howMany;
        }
        return howMany;
    }

    /// ditto
    alias stableRemoveBack = removeBack;

    /**
     * Inserts `stuff` before, after, or instead range `r`, which must
     * be a valid range previously extracted from this array. `stuff`
     * can be a value convertible to `bool` or a range of objects convertible
     * to `bool`. Both stable and non-stable version behave the same and
     * guarantee that ranges iterating over the array are never invalidated.
     *
     * Returns: The number of values inserted.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH length + m), where `m` is the length of `stuff`.
     */
    size_t insertBefore(Stuff)(Range r, Stuff stuff)
    {
        import std.algorithm.mutation : bringToFront;
        // TODO: make this faster, it moves one bit at a time
        immutable inserted = stableInsertBack(stuff);
        immutable tailLength = length - inserted;
        bringToFront(
            this[r._a .. tailLength],
            this[tailLength .. length]);
        return inserted;
    }

    /// ditto
    alias stableInsertBefore = insertBefore;

    /// ditto
    size_t insertAfter(Stuff)(Range r, Stuff stuff)
    if (isImplicitlyConvertible!(Stuff, T) ||
            isInputRange!Stuff && isImplicitlyConvertible!(ElementType!Stuff, T))
    {
        import std.algorithm.mutation : bringToFront;
        // TODO: make this faster, it moves one bit at a time
        immutable inserted = stableInsertBack(stuff);
        immutable tailLength = length - inserted;
        bringToFront(
            this[r._b .. tailLength],
            this[tailLength .. length]);
        return inserted;
    }

    /// ditto
    alias stableInsertAfter = insertAfter;

    /// ditto
    size_t replace(Stuff)(Range r, Stuff stuff)
    if (is(Stuff : bool))
    {
        if (!r.empty)
        {
            // There is room
            r.front = stuff;
            r.popFront();
            linearRemove(r);
        }
        else
        {
            // No room, must insert
            insertBefore(r, stuff);
        }
        return 1;
    }

    /// ditto
    alias stableReplace = replace;

    /**
     * Removes all elements belonging to `r`, which must be a range
     * obtained originally from this array.
     *
     * Returns: A range spanning the remaining elements in the array that
     * initially were right after `r`.
     *
     * Complexity: $(BIGOH length)
     */
    Range linearRemove(Range r)
    {
        import std.algorithm.mutation : copy;
        copy(this[r._b .. length], this[r._a .. length]);
        length = length - r.length;
        return this[r._a .. length];
    }
}

@system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;

    auto a = Array!bool([true, true, false, false, true, false]);
    assert(equal(a[], [true, true, false, false, true, false]));
}

// using Ranges
@system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    import std.range : retro;
    bool[] arr = [true, true, false, false, true, false];

    auto a = Array!bool(retro(arr));
    assert(equal(a[], retro(arr)));
}

@system unittest
{
    Array!bool a;
    assert(a.empty);
}

@system unittest
{
    auto arr = Array!bool([false, false, false, false]);
    assert(arr.front == false);
    assert(arr.back == false);
    assert(arr[1] == false);
    auto slice = arr[];
    slice = arr[0 .. $];
    slice = slice[1 .. $];
    slice.front = true;
    slice.back = true;
    slice[1] = true;
    slice = slice[0 .. $]; // https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=19171
    assert(slice.front == true);
    assert(slice.back == true);
    assert(slice[1] == true);
    assert(slice.moveFront == true);
    assert(slice.moveBack == true);
    assert(slice.moveAt(1) == true);
}

// uncomparable values are valid values for an array
// https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=16331
@system unittest
{
    double[] values = [double.nan, double.nan];
    auto arr = Array!double(values);
}

@nogc @system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!int(0, 1, 2);
    int[3] b = [3, 4, 5];
    short[3] ci = [0, 1, 0];
    auto c = Array!short(ci);
    assert(Array!int(0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2) == a ~ a);
    assert(Array!int(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) == a ~ b);
    assert(Array!int(0, 1, 2, 3) == a ~ 3);
    assert(Array!int(0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 0) == a ~ c);
}

@nogc @system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!char('a', 'b');
    assert(Array!char("abc") == a ~ 'c');
    import std.utf : byCodeUnit;
    assert(Array!char("abcd") == a ~ "cd".byCodeUnit);
}

@nogc @system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!dchar("ąćę"d);
    assert(Array!dchar("ąćęϢϖ"d) == a ~ "Ϣϖ"d);
    wchar x = 'Ϣ';
    assert(Array!dchar("ąćęϢz"d) == a ~ x ~ 'z');
}

@system unittest
{
    Array!bool a;
    assert(a.empty);
    a.insertBack(false);
    assert(!a.empty);
}

@system unittest
{
    Array!bool a;
    assert(a.empty);
    auto b = a.dup;
    assert(b.empty);
    a.insertBack(true);
    assert(b.empty);
}

@system unittest
{
    import std.conv : to;
    Array!bool a;
    assert(a.length == 0);
    a.insert(true);
    assert(a.length == 1, to!string(a.length));
}

@system unittest
{
    import std.conv : to;
    Array!bool a;
    assert(a.capacity == 0);
    foreach (i; 0 .. 100)
    {
        a.insert(true);
        assert(a.capacity >= a.length, to!string(a.capacity));
    }
}

@system unittest
{
    Array!bool a;
    assert(a.capacity == 0);
    a.reserve(15657);
    assert(a.capacity >= 15657);
    a.reserve(100);
    assert(a.capacity >= 15657);
}

@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!bool([true, false, true, true]);
    assert(a[0 .. 2].length == 2);
}

@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!bool([true, false, true, true]);
    assert(a[].length == 4);
}

@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!bool([true, false, true, true]);
    assert(a.front);
    a.front = false;
    assert(!a.front);
}

@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!bool([true, false, true, true]);
    assert(a[].length == 4);
}

@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!bool([true, false, true, true]);
    assert(a.back);
    a.back = false;
    assert(!a.back);
}

@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!bool([true, false, true, true]);
    assert(a[0] && !a[1]);
    a[0] &= a[1];
    assert(!a[0]);
}

@system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    auto a = Array!bool([true, false, true, true]);
    auto b = Array!bool([true, true, false, true]);
    assert(equal((a ~ b)[],
                    [true, false, true, true, true, true, false, true]));
    assert((a ~ [true, false])[].equal([true, false, true, true, true, false]));
    Array!bool c;
    c.insertBack(true);
    assert((c ~ false)[].equal([true, false]));
}
@system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    auto a = Array!bool([true, false, true, true]);
    auto b = Array!bool([false, true, false, true, true]);
    a ~= b;
    assert(equal(
                a[],
                [true, false, true, true, false, true, false, true, true]));
}

@system unittest
{
    auto a = Array!bool([true, false, true, true]);
    a.clear();
    assert(a.capacity == 0);
}

@system unittest
{
    Array!bool a;
    a.length = 1057;
    assert(a.length == 1057);
    assert(a.capacity >= a.length);
    foreach (e; a)
    {
        assert(!e);
    }
    immutable cap = a.capacity;
    a.length = 100;
    assert(a.length == 100);
    // do not realloc if length decreases
    assert(a.capacity == cap);
}

@system unittest
{
    Array!bool a;
    a.length = 1057;
    assert(!a.removeAny());
    assert(a.length == 1056);
    foreach (e; a)
    {
        assert(!e);
    }
}

@system unittest
{
    Array!bool a;
    for (int i = 0; i < 100; ++i)
        a.insertBack(true);
    foreach (e; a)
        assert(e);
}

@system unittest
{
    Array!bool a;
    a.length = 1057;
    assert(a.removeBack(1000) == 1000);
    assert(a.length == 57);
    foreach (e; a)
    {
        assert(!e);
    }
}

@system unittest
{
    import std.conv : to;
    Array!bool a;
    version (bugxxxx)
    {
        a._store.refCountedDebug = true;
    }
    a.insertBefore(a[], true);
    assert(a.length == 1, to!string(a.length));
    a.insertBefore(a[], false);
    assert(a.length == 2, to!string(a.length));
    a.insertBefore(a[1 .. $], true);
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    assert(a[].equal([false, true, true]));
}

// https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=21555
@system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    Array!bool arr;
    size_t len = arr.insertBack([false, true]);
    assert(len == 2);
}

// https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=21556
@system unittest
{
    import std.algorithm.comparison : equal;
    Array!bool a;
    a.insertBack([true, true, false, false, true]);
    assert(a.length == 5);

    assert(a.insertAfter(a[0 .. 5], [false, false]) == 2);
    assert(equal(a[], [true, true, false, false, true, false, false]));

    assert(a.insertAfter(a[0 .. 5], true) == 1);
    assert(equal(a[], [true, true, false, false, true, true, false, false]));
}

@system unittest
{
    import std.conv : to;
    Array!bool a;
    a.length = 10;
    a.insertAfter(a[0 .. 5], true);
    assert(a.length == 11, to!string(a.length));
    assert(a[5]);
}
@system unittest
{
    alias V3 = int[3];
    V3 v = [1, 2, 3];
    Array!V3 arr;
    arr ~= v;
    assert(arr[0] == [1, 2, 3]);
}
@system unittest
{
    alias V3 = int[3];
    V3[2] v = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]];
    Array!V3 arr;
    arr ~= v;
    assert(arr[0] == [1, 2, 3]);
    assert(arr[1] == [4, 5, 6]);
}

// Change of length reallocates without calling GC.
// https://issues.dlang.org/show_bug.cgi?id=13642
@system unittest
{
    import core.memory;
    class ABC { void func() { int x = 5; } }

    Array!ABC arr;
    // Length only allocates if capacity is too low.
    arr.reserve(4);
    assert(arr.capacity == 4);

    void func() @nogc
    {
        arr.length = 5;
    }
    func();

    foreach (ref b; arr) b = new ABC;
    GC.collect();
    arr[1].func();
}

@system unittest
{

    Array!int arr = [1, 2, 4, 5];
    int[] data = arr.data();

    const Array!int arr2 = [8, 9];
    assert(arr2.data() == [8, 9]);

    data[0] = 0;
    assert(arr[0] == 0);

    arr.length = 0;
    assert(arr.data == []);

    Array!int empty;
    assert(empty.data == []);
}